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A MODEL OF CO-OPERATIVE EDUCATION ON PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS IN AFRICA By PIERRE JUAN DE MONTFORT DOCTORAL THESIS Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Technologiae Human Resource Management School for Entrepreneurship and Business Development, in the Faculty of Management Sciences Central University of Technology, Free State PROMOTER: DR K.J. DE BEER CO-PROMOTER: PROF H.J. LANGHOLTZ DATE SUBMITTED: 01 FEBRUARY 2007 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa iii DECLARATION I, PIERRE JUAN DE MONTFORT, with identification number: 561128 5019 088 and student number: 9739874, declare that this research project is my own, unaided work, submitted, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR TECHNOLOGIAE: HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT to the Central University of Technology, Free State, not submitted for a degree or examination at any other University. PIERRE JUAN DE MONTFORT On this 1ST day of February 2007 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I give all glory to God, the source of my strength, for granting me both the mental and physical endurance to complete this monumental task. Then, I would like to thank my entire family, especially my loving wife Anna-Marie, for her love patience, and understanding. I would like to extend my sincere thanks and appreciation to my promoter, Dr K.J. de Beer, who encouraged and assisted me in so many ways. Without your help and compassion, I would have found this a far more difficult task. Thank you for believing in me and for your continued support and encouragement throughout the process. Special thanks to Prof Harvey Langholtz. Thank you for friendliness, encouragement and above all your preparedness to assist. The Central University of Technology, Free State for giving me the opportunity to enrol for a Doctoral study. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa v TABLE OF CONTENTS Cover Page i Declaration iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v List of figures vii List of tables viii List of Acronyms ix Synopsis xvi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background ........................................................................................... 1 1.2 Rationale for the study........................................................................... 2 1.3 Statement of problem ............................................................................ 9 1.4 General research design and methodology .......................................... 12 1.5 Outline of the research report................................................................ 13 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 15 2.2 Definition of key concepts..................................................................... 16 2.3 Discussion.............................................................................................. 24 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa vi 2.4 Conclusion.............................................................................................. 63 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 68 3.2 Design of the study ................................................................................ 69 3.3 Sampling................................................................................................. 70 3.4 Description of measuring instrument..................................................... 72 3.5 Data collection procedure...................................................................... 74 3.6 Data analysis …................................................................................... 77 3.7 Limitations of the study.......................................................................... 77 3.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 79 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH RESULTS 4.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 80 4.2 Section 1: Need analysis ....................................................................... 81 4.3 Section 2: Job description and target group analysis............................ 100 4.4 Section 3: Formulation of outcomes...................................................... 113 4.5 Section 4: Selection and sequencing of content .................................. 119 4.6 Section 5: Determine delivery method and learning aids...................... 126 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa vii 4.7 Section 6: Learner assessment............................................................. 143 4.8 Section 7: Programme evaluation.......................................................... 154 4.9 Conclusion.............................................................................................. 161 CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 163 5.2 Summary of findings and conclusions ................................................. 163 5.3 Limitations.............................................................................................. 165 5.4 Recommendations................................................................................. 166 5.4.1 Programme overview.......................................................................... 166 5.4.2 Curriculum content.............................................................................. 178 5.5 Further research..................................................................................... 247 5.6 Larger relevance of the study................................................................ 247 5.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................. 251 LIST OF REFERENCES................................................................................ 252 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa viii LIST OF FIGURES Number Page 1 – Research design framework 70 2 – ETD process 95 3 – Main elements of ISD 96 4 – PDA Model of Instructional Design 98 5 – ISD model integration 99 6 – Curriculum framework 118 7– Sequence of learning programmes 124 8 –Selection of delivery method according to nature of the outcome 128 9 - Selection of delivery method according to target group 129 10 - Selection of delivery method according to content 130 11 - Availability of learners 131 12 - Levels of Training Evaluation 155 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa ix LIST OF TABLES Number Page 1 - Survey results 82 2 – Target group analysis survey results 104 3 – Learner profile 112 4 – Selection of learning content 119 5 – Sequence of learning units 124 6 - Selection of delivery method 133 7 – Learning styles 137 8 - Selection matrix for learning aids 140 9 - Informal learner activities in outcomes-based assessment 142 10 - Assessment methods 146 11 – Articulation with other programmes 171 12 – Structure of the qualification 172 13 – Internal structure of qualification 172 14 – Exit level outcomes 173 15 – Levels, credits and learning components assigned to qualification 174 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa x 16 – Possible combinations of electives 176 LIST OF ACRONYMS AC – Abstract conceptualisation ADDIE - Analysis, Design, Development, Implement, Evaluate AE – Active experimentation AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ASF – African Standby Force AU – African Union AWOL – Absence without official leave C2 - Command and Control CA - Civil Affairs CAI - Computer Assisted Instruction CE – Concrete experience CIMIC - Civil-Military Coordination Process CIVPOL – Civilian Police COE - Contingent-Owned Equipment COLET – College of Education Technology A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xi CUT – Central University of Technology, Free State CRI - Criterion Referenced Instruction CRP – Command Research Paper DDR - Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration DOD – Department of Defence DRC - Democratic Republic of the Congo ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States ED Tech – Educational Technology EOD - Explosive Ordnance Disposal ELO – Exit Level Outcome ETD – Education Training and Development ETDP – Education Training and Development Practitioner ETQA – Education Training Qualifications Authority G8 – Group of Eight Countries GPCT – General Purpose Combat Training GEO-POL – Geographical and Political Studies HA - Humanitarian Assistance A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xii HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus HQ – Headquarters HR – Human Resources ICRC - International Committee of the Red Cross IDP – Internally displaced people IED - Improvised Explosive Device IFOR - Implementation Force IHL - International Humanitarian Law IO – International Organisation IOM - International Organisation for Migration IMPI - Indigenous Military Peace-building Initiative IMAS - International Mine Action Standards IRC – International Red Cross ISD – Instructional Design ISS – Institute for Strategic Studies JA - Yugoslav Army JSCSP - Joint Senior Command and Staff Programme A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xiii KLA - Kosovo Liberation Army KSA – Knowledge, Skills and Attributes LOAC - Law of Armed Conflict MBT – Mine Ban Treaty MILOBS – UN Military Observer MILOPS – Military Operations MSCA - Military Support to Civil Authorities MOOTW - Military Operations other than War MONUC - UN mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo MP – Member of Parliament NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NCO – Non-commissioned Officer NEO - Non-combatant Evacuation Operations NEPAD - New Partnership for Africa’s Development NGO – Non-governmental Organisation NIHE - Northern Cape Institute for Higher Learning NQF – National Qualifications Framework A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xiv NRF – National Research Foundation OBE – Outcomes Based Education OSCE - Organisation of Security Co-operation in Europe ONUSAL - The United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador ONUMOZ - The United Nations Operation in Mozambique PBT - Performance-Based Training PCM - Project Cycle Management PDA - Plan, Develop, and Assess PE – Peace enforcement PfP - African Partnership for Peace PK - Peacekeeping PSO – Peace Support Operations PTSD - Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder PO – Peace Operations POW - Prisoners of War PVO – Private Voluntary Organisation SA Army - South African Army A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xv SAHMS - The SA Medical Health Services SADC – Southern African Development Community SANDF – South African National Defence Force SANWC - South African National War College SAARDHE - South African Association for Research Development SAQA – South Africa Qualifications Authority SAT - Systems Approach to Training SASCE - South African Association for Co-operative Education SEBO – School for Entrepreneurship and Business Development SFOR - Stabilization Force SSR – Security Sector Reform STDs - Sexually Transmitted Diseases TB – Tuberculosis TCC – Troop Contributing Country TEWT - Tactical Exercise without Troops TUT – Tswane University of Technology RDP - Reconstruction and Development Program A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xvi RO – Reflective observation RSA – Republic of South Africa RPD - Rapid Prototyping Design RPL – Recognition of prior learning UN – United Nations UNEF - UN Emergency Force UNISA - University of South Africa UNTAG - United Nations Transition Assistance Group UNTAC - The United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia ONUC - UN Operation in the Congo UNHCR - UN High Commission for Refugees UNICEF - UN Children’s Fund UNFICYP - UN Peacekeeping force in Cyprus UNIFIL - UN interim force in Lebanon UNITAR POCI – United Nations Institute for Training and Research Peacekeeping Operations Correspondence Instruction UNOSOM I - The First United Nations Operation in Somalia A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xvii UNPROFOR - The United Nations Protection Force in the Former Yugoslavia UK – United Kingdom USA – United States of America UXO - Unexploded Ordnance WACE - World Association for Co-Operative Education WFP – World Food Programme WHO – World Health Organisation WO – Warrant Officer A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xviii SYNOPSIS A MODEL OF CO-OPERATIVE EDUCATION ON PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS IN AFRICA By PIERRE JUAN DE MONTFORT PROMOTER: DR K.J. DE BEER CO-PROMOTER: PROF H.J. LANGHOLTZ DEGREE: D.TECH (DOCTOR OF TECHNOLOGIAE) HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xix Summary The focus of this study is on a Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations (PSO) in Africa. PSO are multi-functional operations involving military forces and diplomatic humanitarian agencies. They are designed to achieve humanitarian goals or a long-term political settlement, and are conducted impartially in support of a UN mandate. These include peacekeeping (PK), peace enforcement (PE), conflict prevention, peacemaking, peace building, and humanitarian operations. Since the advent of democracy in 1994, domestic and international expectations have steadily grown regarding a new South African role as a responsible and respected member of the international community. These expectations have included a hope that South Africa will play a leading role in a variety of international, regional and sub-regional forums, and that the country will become an active participant in attempts to resolve various regional and international conflicts. Peacekeeping is becoming more and more important as South Africa plays a vital role in African missions, mandates, deployment and restructuring. The core of peacekeeping operations in Africa is no longer about the deployment of armed forces, but the focus is shifting towards a more integrated approach including reconstruction, development, stability, civilian involvement and humanitarian aspects. While skills required for peace operations overlap with those required for war, there is increasing recognition that additional peace operations training is needed to successfully conduct these missions. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xx The demand, advancement and application of peacekeeping evolve worldwide, especially in Africa, where enormous funding is being poured into local research and development, testing and training. The market for Education, Training and Development (ETD) in the field of PSO is growing, as South Africa is becoming increasingly involved in peacekeeping missions on the African continent. At present, there is no Co-operative Education programme on generic PSO on the operational/strategic level presented by any of the major universities in South Africa in order to enhance other PSO training. The objectives of this research project are in phase one: • To determine the need for and feasibility of a Co-operative Education Program on PSO. • To write a instructional design (ISD) report for a Co-operative Education Model on PSO and, • To draft possible curriculum content. • The second phase of the project could involve the development of learning material, and the evaluation of the proposed Co-operative Education Model on PSO by running a pilot programme. The principal product (output) of this research will consist out of an ISD report on a Model for Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa, presented by means of Correspondence Instruction with contact sessions. The key factors in production of the learning program include geo-political and security studies in order to create an understanding of the African battle space, PSO as presented by UNITAR POCI, the assessment of international practice with regards to PSO in order to relate the information to operations in Africa, PSO on the African continent, and Civil-Military Cooperation. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xxi The research team consists of D. Tech candidate, Lt Col P.J. de Montfort and the study leadership team of Dr K.J. de Beer and Prof H.J. Langholtz - Director of UNITAR POCI. Other potential partners in this project include the Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT); the University of South Africa (UNISA); The SA National Defence Force (SANDF), The SANDF College of Educational Technology (SANDF COLET); The Northern Cape Institute for Higher Learning (NIHE), and the South African National War College (SANWC). The target market of potential learners includes military practitioners from the SANDF and SADC countries, diplomats, civilian employees of ministries of defence, foreign affairs, employees of NGO’s, scholars and normal citizens who could benefit from a Co-operative Education Program on PSO. The typical customer of is someone who is working in the PSO and humanitarian relief related fields. As PSO will increasingly play a significant role in foreign policy of South Africa, the under mentioned recommendations are offered for consideration: • The non-availability of a Model of a Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa within Institutions of Higher Learning makes this a feasible project. • Partnerships for co-operation should be formed with the Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT); the University of South Africa (UNISA); The SA National Defence Force College of Educational Technology (COLET); The Northern Cape Institute for Higher Learning (NIHE), the South African National War College (SANWC) and the Institute for Security Studies (ISS) in order to establish a sound knowledge base on PSO in Africa. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xxii • Marketing strategy should be to aggressively enhance, promote and support the fact that the envisaged product will be unique, due to the fact that no Institution of Higher Learning in South Africa currently has a similar programme based on scientific instructional design. • Sales strategy need to consist out of making the product available at a competitive price in order to capture market share before the entrance of other competitors especially from the international arena. • Profit goals could be established later when the Institute of Higher Learning has a consistent sales volume and customer base. Financial projections indicate that the exit of investment will be achievable within one year. • The SANDF could subscribe to the program in order to give its officers a higher learning qualification (tertiary) in an applicable field. • The SANDF could subscribe to the program in order equip its members with non-combat skills that includes a wide variety of PSO subjects. • The learning program would be of great assistance to educate the SA community and humanitarian aid organisations with non-combat skills on PSO. • The Institute of Security Studies (ISS) could become an important role player in the compilation of instructional content focussed on the African continent. • The ISS could form a partnership with the other mentioned role players to further, and enhance a culture of peace in the South African community. • Offering the program to other African countries in line with NEPAD initiatives could enhance capacity building. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xxiii The consideration, development and adoption of these recommendations will provide the different stakeholders an avenue for the effective participation of Institutions of Higher Learning in the peace drive in Africa by presenting a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa. The first research findings of this project were submitted for a competition of the National Research Foundation (NRF) at the Centre for Entrepreneurship and Business Development at the Faculty of Management Sciences of the Central University of Technology, Free Sate (CUT) in 2004. It obtained a third price in the business plan category after an internal and national assessment process and was verbally presented at the official prize giving event at the CUT. A following chapter, namely, Co-operative Education in Peacekeeping Operations Correspondence Instruction, was subsequently submitted to the World Association for Co-Operative Education (WACE) international conference in Boston, June 2005. It was evaluated by international peer reviewers and presented by the Director of UNITAR POCI, Prof Harvey Langholtz, who is the co-promoter of this dissertation. A command research paper (CRP) written by the researcher, and assessed by the Tswane University of Technology (TUT), on the topic “A Model of Higher Learning on Peace Support Operations in Africa” was awarded the price for the best CRP during the Joint Senior Command and Staff Programme (JSCSP) of 2005. The promoter and the researcher also submitted posters and papers respectively to the South African Association for Research Development (SAARDHE) international conference at the KwaZulu Natal University in November 2005 as well as at the international conference of the South African Association for Co-operative Education (SASCE) in April 2006. All submissions were peer reviewed. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa xxiv The poster session was prepared in collaboration with the Director Student Services of the University of South Africa (UNISA) in the Free State and Northern Cape, Dr J.W. Mostert, as part of a joint NRF focus area research project. Dr Mostert also presented a keynote address on this joint project at the plenary session of a national SASCE conference at the Tswane University of Technology (TUT) based on the research outputs of the promoter, DR K.J. de Beer and the researcher. In the final stages of this research project, an abstract approved for the UNISA conference “Contesting Spaces – The Curriculum in Transition”, the 1st African Conference on Curriculum Development in Higher Education, 19-21 September 2006. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 1 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND The primary purpose of the United Nations (UN) is to maintain international peace and security (UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, 1995:3), and to end the “scourge of war” (Charter of the UN: 1945). According to Deen (2006:5) UN peacekeeping operations have become an indispensable weapon in the arsenal of the international community and there is growing confidence in UN peacekeeping as a means to help build stability after conflict. Throughout the duration of the Cold War, UN peace support operations (PSO) were constrained by superpower rivalry and remained relatively small. Despite more than 80 wars fought world wide (James, 1990), only 13 UN peacekeeping and observer missions were conducted between 1948 and 1988 (Roberts, 1996). After the Cold War, the number of UN peacekeeping or observer forces increased and, at the end of 1994, these missions were staffed by 77,783 civilian (Boutros-Ghali, 1996:4) and military personnel from over 82 different nations, serving on 19 missions (Liu, 1999:8). Now in 2006 the UN has recorded a historic high of 80, 976 soldiers and 15,000 civilian peacekeepers from 112 countries and is set to total 140,000 by 2007 (Deen, 2006:5). The current trends of political, social, and economic globalisation has resulted in an increase in the number of conflicts, aggravated by instability, social and economic injustice, and political competition (Hårleman, 2003: 8). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 2 The UN is confronted with a significant change in the nature of conflict. Instead of wars in which two nations with professional armies face each other, today’s conflict is typically an internal struggle with irregular forces, light weapons and guerrilla tactics. There are not merely two opposing forces, but include rival warlords, factional leaders, para-military forces and even organised criminal groups (Standard Generic Training Module, 2003: 3-4). These so-called 'third generation' operations are triggered by the resurgence of suppressed and very old animosity. Conflicts are characterised by abuses of human rights. Moreover, consent may be absent, since authority has collapsed and is meaningless because of a large number of groups claiming power. Agreements are non-existent or worthless and international law and conventions are openly disobeyed (Malan 1996:3). In this environment, UN peacekeeping has become increasingly complex and multi-dimensional, requiring a variety of civilian, police and military actors (Higate, 2004:3). It is therefore essential that training is available to familiarize personnel with established doctrine. Such training must be standard, doctrinally correct, and easily delivered. 1.2 RATIONALE FOR THE RESEARCH The security of Africa has deteriorated since 1989, when the Cold War ended. Insurgents often gain power and some states involve themselves militarily in their neighbour’s affairs. Diminished foreign interest, a change in the nature of African conflicts and personal dictatorial rule in many African states have been the main causes of deterioration. Many African wars are rooted in ethnic quarrel (Kruys, 2004:35). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 3 In addition, the end of the Cold War reduced the military-strategic importance of Africa in world politics and increased claims for democracy encouraged civil conflict in various African nations. A high proportion of youth, rapid urban growth, low levels of cropland and excessive adult mortality, mostly due to high HIV and AIDS prevalence, are further factors increasing risks levels for civil conflict (Cincotta, Engelman and Anastasion, 2003:13). Africa has emerged as a dangerous and challenging environment for the conduct of contemporary peace operations (Potgieter, 1996:1). The challenges and constraints of peacekeeping in African countries such as Somalia and Rwanda led to unwillingness by the major powers to become involved in peacekeeping efforts in Africa (Neethling, 1999:22-23). At the start of the 21st century Africa is unstable and rent by wars leading to famine, brutality, disease and failing economies (Kruys, 2004;15). There exists no doubt that Africa is brimming with poverty and underdevelopment. Africa has the lowest per capita income in the world (Daniels, 2005:4). This state of affairs led to calls made by President Thabo Mbeki for an Africa-renaissance that amounts to Africans accepting responsibility for their own destiny (Steyn, 1997:12) and accountability for conflict prevention and resolution on the continent through co-operation at regional and sub-regional level (Thiart, 1997:12). Nelson Mandela put forward the national value: “South Africa cannot escape its African destiny” (Mandela, 1993). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 4 Corresponding to calls for a renaissance the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) is arguable the most important socio-economic plan ever to emerge from Africa - an ‘African solution to African problems.’ The programme links aid to good governance and set preconditions for its success to include peace and security (Ramsbotham, Bah and Calder, 2005:2). If NEPAD is to be viable, the role of African militaries will have to be acknowledged and defined (Engelbrecht, 2002:22). In reaction, the African Union (AU) proposed the establishment of an African Standby Force (ASF) and the G8 countries have pledged assistance to African peacekeeping efforts as part of their Africa action plan to support NEPAD (Fabricius, 2003:11). South Africa has declared itself willing to contribute to PSO under the auspices of the UN, the AU and Southern African development Community (SADC) (Kent and Malan: 2003:1). The White Paper on Defence (1996:20) acknowledges the expectation for South Africa to participate in PSO. The Defence Review (1998:36) stipulates that the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) may become involved in PSO as part of a multinational peace force. The White Paper on Participation in International Peacekeeping Operations (1998:2) states that South Africa’s potential contributions may include the voluntary services of a diverse group of civilians. In January 2001, President Thabo Mbeki told the world economic forum at Davos that the key priority for Africa was creating peace, security, stability, and democratic governance, as without which it would be impossible to engage in meaningful economic activity. South African Defence Minister Mosiuoa Lekota concurs that there will be no development without security (Heitman, 2005b:21). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 5 In an interview with Helmoed-Römer Heitman (2005a:34) the Chief of the South African (SA) Army, Lt Gen Solly Shoke, said, “It’s our duty to participate in PSOs.” Judging from the statements the Republic of South Africa (RSA) will remain involved in PSO in Africa for political, economic and moral reasons to help resolve conflicts on the continent, since ignoring them could mean instability that would impinge on South Africa economically and otherwise. Conflict, instability and a lack of security in Africa have been the key factors both in frightening off investment and in making self-funded economic development difficult (Morris, 2003:12). The core of PSO in Africa does no longer merely entail the deployment of armed forces, but the focus is on shifting towards a more integrated approach including reconstruction, development, stability, civilian involvement and humanitarian aspects (International Quality and Productivity Centre: 2006). Since 2000, SANDF soldiers have been deploying on the continent for peacekeeping missions (Tsedu, 2002:6). Jankielsohn (2003:21), a member of parliament, urges government to acknowledge that the SANDF has a limited capacity to deploy troops in PSO over long periods. It has neither the logistical nor the personnel capacity to do so. The SANDF has health problems arising from a 21% HIV/AIDS infection rate (Katzenellenbogen, 2004:3). According to Boshoff (Financial Mail, 2004:25) SANDF resources have stretched to the limit by its peacekeeping obligations, prompting a review of current policy. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 6 An index published in the International Security Review is of the opinion that South Africa’s military potency is slipping (Trench, 1998:15). According to Heitman (2003:12), an army lives and dies literally by its training. Soldiers, units and formations must train frequently, regularly and thoroughly for an army to be effective. Any slippage in the training programme will eventually result in casualties. Linking to this, one of the areas of greatest concern in South Africa is the extremely low level of education of the majority of the population (Jerling, 1999:12). More than 75% of the South African labour force is functionally illiterate in the sense that they do not have the skills that are required to perform most job tasks effectively and efficiently (Ernst, 2000:1). According to Harrison (1989:12), education directly and indirectly affects the development of knowledge and skills. Invariably, only people who are educated, trained and developed can be productive and contribute significantly (Erasmus and van Dyk, 1999: 15). In an environment of rapid change, Education, Training and Development (ETD), has become the driving force for meeting the demand for skilled workers to manage the new social and economic challenges (Van Dyk, Nel, Loedolff and Haasbroek, 2001:5). Van der Westhuizen (1998:34) agrees by stating that countries and organisations will only be able to cope with a fast changing world if they adopt an innovative approach to ETD. Allen (1998:2) says that training is fundamental in becoming more productive. As a result, to succeed the SANDF, other government and non-government organisations (NGOs) involved in PSO have no other alternative but to properly educate, train and develop its people (SA White Paper on Defence, 1996:10). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 7 By using ETD as force multiplier, the SANDF will be able to meet future force demands (Van der Westhuizen, 1998:11), and create learning conditions to prepare South Africans to meet the demands of globalisation (Brown and Brown, 1994:3-39). 1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The awareness of a problem base on the perception that not everything is as it should be (Wolmarans and Eksteen, 1987:8). There is a need for conceptual clarity on principles of doctrine for the conduct of increasingly complex peace operations - especially those where there are parties bent on using violence to derail the peace process. Programs such as those of the UN Institute for Training and Research Peacekeeping Operations Correspondence Instruction (UNITA POCI) and Co-operative Education are important to help bridge the illiteracy gap. However, it is also important that the African doctrine for PSO not only derive from abroad. African realities should inform military operations (MILOPS) that are inevitably different from the environment that has shaped European and American doctrinal development (Training for Peace, 2004:1). The researcher knows from experience that, in preparing its forces for peace support missions, the SA Army relies almost exclusively on a core of general-purpose combat training, supplemented by mission-specific training during the pre-conflict phase. The reliance on general-purpose combat training base on the conviction that troops well trained for high-intensity warfare would be well prepared for any scenario falling short of combat, including peacekeeping. It assumes that peacekeeping draws on the same set of skills as conventional A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 8 warfare, but tests soldiers to a lesser degree and that any necessary training beyond general-purpose combat training is achievable within the relatively short period between the notice of mission and a unit's actual deployment. Regrettably, this traditional approach to training is not adequate to give military personnel either the full range of skills or the appropriate orientation necessary to meet the diverse and complex challenges presented in African peace support operations. The topics relevant to training for PSO are many and complex and could possibly not be covered adequately in the pre-conflict phase, particularly in cases where that period measure in days. The failure of the formal training plan to provide satisfactorily for these non-combat skills arise primarily from the lack of doctrine recognising the need for such training and the lack of supporting training materials and standards. According to Malan, (1996:11) doctrinal elasticity and attempts to train soldiers "across the spectrum of conflict from stability operations to war,” must be avoided, for they imply a complex and confusing mix of the use of armed force on the one hand, with concepts such as neutrality, impartiality and the minimum use of necessary force on the other. Southern Africa simply lacks the foundational capacity to create forces that are ubiquitous and capable of discharging tasks across the spectrum of 'peace operation' roles. A more realistic vision would be the creation of a readily available, multilateral pool of competent peacekeepers at the regional or sub-regional level to prevent the reigniting of conflict and the creation of a separate, effective and rapidly deployable multilateral enforcement formation able to stop conflict before it gets serious. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 9 Van Dyk et al. (2001:175) differentiate between three types of problems: managerial, systems and performance. The absence of models of co-operative education on PSO in Africa at South African tertiary institutions points towards a performance problem. According to Van Niekerk (1991:60) to solve, a performance problem such as the lack of ability to do a certain task is to give members additional knowledge, skills and attributes (KSAs). For that reason, a much wider array of KSAs is required than is normally covered under general-purpose combat training. Broadening the KSA base through higher education is a means of shaping appropriate attitudes and setting the right expectations to help SA Army members and NGOs adapt to the demands of PSO. Langholtz, de Beer and Mostert (2003:7) acknowledge that direct supervision and field exercises are necessary to instruct hands-on technical skills. Yet, institutions of higher learning can provide co-operative education on PSO that are cognitive or knowledge based. This knowledge could include the UNITAR POCI courses, geo-political and security studies, international perceptions on PSO, international humanitarian law and the law of armed conflict, as well as other knowledge-based topics that peacekeepers need to understand in order to serve effectively on UN or AU missions. The motivation for the research is evident from the discussion above and because no Institute of Higher Learning in South Africa is currently contributing to the field of PSO in Africa, this proposed Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa could help to change the mindset of the major universities. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 10 1.3.1 RESEARCH STATEMENT A Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa will satisfy the need for tertiary education, improved knowledge, changed attitudes and assist to solve conflict in Africa. 1.3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The primary objectives for this research were to: • Carry out a need analysis in order to determine whether there is a need among SA Army officers in the SANDF for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa; • Prepare an instructional design (ISD) report for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa based on principles of scientific instructional design practice; and • Draft curriculum content on PSO in accordance with the principles of curriculum design. 1.3.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY The future continues to hold a high demographic risk of civil conflict in Africa. South Africa is in a state of transition and will remain as such for some time to come. The international community expects South Africa to become more involved in peacekeeping missions. The SA Army, however, has a limited capacity to deploy troops in PSO over long periods. It has neither the logistical, nor the personnel capacity to do so. The defence budget remains under pressure to such an extent that South African A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 11 military potency is slipping and will drop further if the lack of political will continues to hamper the effectiveness of the SA Army. If South Africa wants to play a leading role on an unstable continent, it must have a focused and functional defence force. The expectation is that traditional training methods in the SA Army will not be able to satisfy all the present and future human resource development needs, especially the need for competent peacekeepers. Within the overall educational philosophy of a combination of distance education and co-operative training, the nature of the proposed project is to fulfil the urgent need to change South African soldiers and other PSO stakeholders into unbiased diplomats. Peacekeepers must be acquainted with the political, military and socio-cultural dynamics of the crisis area. UNITAR POCI, University of South Africa (UNISA) and the Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT), in collaboration with the SANDF, and institutions such as the ISS could use distance education andragogy to achieve the objectives of peace, security and economic stability in Southern Africa. The focus of the SA Army from the onset should therefore be one of development in cooperation with other stakeholder organisations. Training peacekeepers via distance education is an inexpensive way for Institutions of Higher Learning to become involved and contribute. This could be a key step to assist in the development of a professional SANDF. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 12 The researcher is of the opinion that a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa will provide training and education for a wide variety of learners, in order to improve their ability to participate in multinational peace support and humanitarian operations. 1.4 GENERAL RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 1.4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN The overall plan followed is a non-experimental design. Based on the four-dimensional framework, it becomes possible to categorise the study as one of an empirical nature using primary and secondary sources, numerical and textual data type with medium control (Mouton, 2001:146). 1.4.2 POPULATION, SAMPLE AND SAMPLING The study included all officers in the SA Army (population) irrespective of rank, age or gender. In light of the size and complexity of the SANDF, the respondents (target population) selected from various units in the SA Army. A sample of approximately 90 officers randomly drawn from the SA Army reflects as closely as possible the characteristics of the entire population, although the selected sample can hardly ever be a mirror image of the population. 1.4.3 DATA COLLECTION METHOD A survey determines the need for a higher learning programme and assists to analyse the target group. An instructional design model formed the blueprint for the design of the proposed learning programme and curriculum. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 13 1.4.4 DATA ANALYSIS The appropriate method for interpreting data will be descriptive statistics as described by SPSS computer software (SPSS, 1999). Data recorded as numerical values enables the analysis of data by statistical means. Measurement took place on an ordinal level in order to rank data in terms of a formulated order. Descriptive frequencies converted to percentages illustrate the levels of agreement. 1.5 OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH REPORT Besides this introductory chapter, the report is organised into a further four chapters. Chapter 2, the literature review, contains the theoretical framework that has informed this research. The review involves the constructs of international peacekeeping, geo-politics and security studies, PSO in Africa, civil-military coordination and UNITAR POCI learning programs. Throughout the review, a theoretical basis for these constructs develop and it culminates in a summary from the material reviewed. Chapter 3 discusses the methodology that formed the foundation of the research. The research strategy, sampling, measuring instruments, data collection procedure, data analysis and limitations of the study are discussed. Chapter 4 presents the research results. Chapter 5 presents the conclusion and recommendations of this study. It argues the main findings by drawing together the results from the previous chapters into a programme strategy. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 1 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND The primary purpose of the United Nations (UN) is to maintain international peace and security (UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, 1995:3), and to end the “scourge of war” (Charter of the UN: 1945). According to Deen (2006:5) UN peacekeeping operations have become an indispensable weapon in the arsenal of the international community and there is growing confidence in UN peacekeeping as a means to help build stability after conflict. Throughout the duration of the Cold War, UN peace support operations (PSO) were constrained by superpower rivalry and remained relatively small. Despite more than 80 wars fought world wide (James, 1990), only 13 UN peacekeeping and observer missions were conducted between 1948 and 1988 (Roberts, 1996). After the Cold War, the number of UN peacekeeping or observer forces increased and, at the end of 1994, these missions were staffed by 77,783 civilian (Boutros-Ghali, 1996:4) and military personnel from over 82 different nations, serving on 19 missions (Liu, 1999:8). Now in 2006 the UN has recorded a historic high of 80, 976 soldiers and 15,000 civilian peacekeepers from 112 countries and is set to total 140,000 by 2007 (Deen, 2006:5). The current trends of political, social, and economic globalisation has resulted in an increase in the number of conflicts, aggravated by instability, social and economic injustice, and political competition (Hårleman, 2003: 8). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 2 The UN is confronted with a significant change in the nature of conflict. Instead of wars in which two nations with professional armies face each other, today’s conflict is typically an internal struggle with irregular forces, light weapons and guerrilla tactics. There are not merely two opposing forces, but include rival warlords, factional leaders, para-military forces and even organised criminal groups (Standard Generic Training Module, 2003: 3-4). These so-called 'third generation' operations are triggered by the resurgence of suppressed and very old animosity. Conflicts are characterised by abuses of human rights. Moreover, consent may be absent, since authority has collapsed and is meaningless because of a large number of groups claiming power. Agreements are non-existent or worthless and international law and conventions are openly disobeyed (Malan 1996:3). In this environment, UN peacekeeping has become increasingly complex and multi-dimensional, requiring a variety of civilian, police and military actors (Higate, 2004:3). It is therefore essential that training is available to familiarize personnel with established doctrine. Such training must be standard, doctrinally correct, and easily delivered. 1.2 RATIONALE FOR THE RESEARCH The security of Africa has deteriorated since 1989, when the Cold War ended. Insurgents often gain power and some states involve themselves militarily in their neighbour’s affairs. Diminished foreign interest, a change in the nature of African conflicts and personal dictatorial rule in many African states have been the main causes of deterioration. Many African wars are rooted in ethnic quarrel (Kruys, 2004:35). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 3 In addition, the end of the Cold War reduced the military-strategic importance of Africa in world politics and increased claims for democracy encouraged civil conflict in various African nations. A high proportion of youth, rapid urban growth, low levels of cropland and excessive adult mortality, mostly due to high HIV and AIDS prevalence, are further factors increasing risks levels for civil conflict (Cincotta, Engelman and Anastasion, 2003:13). Africa has emerged as a dangerous and challenging environment for the conduct of contemporary peace operations (Potgieter, 1996:1). The challenges and constraints of peacekeeping in African countries such as Somalia and Rwanda led to unwillingness by the major powers to become involved in peacekeeping efforts in Africa (Neethling, 1999:22-23). At the start of the 21st century Africa is unstable and rent by wars leading to famine, brutality, disease and failing economies (Kruys, 2004;15). There exists no doubt that Africa is brimming with poverty and underdevelopment. Africa has the lowest per capita income in the world (Daniels, 2005:4). This state of affairs led to calls made by President Thabo Mbeki for an Africa-renaissance that amounts to Africans accepting responsibility for their own destiny (Steyn, 1997:12) and accountability for conflict prevention and resolution on the continent through co-operation at regional and sub-regional level (Thiart, 1997:12). Nelson Mandela put forward the national value: “South Africa cannot escape its African destiny” (Mandela, 1993). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 4 Corresponding to calls for a renaissance the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) is arguable the most important socio-economic plan ever to emerge from Africa - an ‘African solution to African problems.’ The programme links aid to good governance and set preconditions for its success to include peace and security (Ramsbotham, Bah and Calder, 2005:2). If NEPAD is to be viable, the role of African militaries will have to be acknowledged and defined (Engelbrecht, 2002:22). In reaction, the African Union (AU) proposed the establishment of an African Standby Force (ASF) and the G8 countries have pledged assistance to African peacekeeping efforts as part of their Africa action plan to support NEPAD (Fabricius, 2003:11). South Africa has declared itself willing to contribute to PSO under the auspices of the UN, the AU and Southern African development Community (SADC) (Kent and Malan: 2003:1). The White Paper on Defence (1996:20) acknowledges the expectation for South Africa to participate in PSO. The Defence Review (1998:36) stipulates that the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) may become involved in PSO as part of a multinational peace force. The White Paper on Participation in International Peacekeeping Operations (1998:2) states that South Africa’s potential contributions may include the voluntary services of a diverse group of civilians. In January 2001, President Thabo Mbeki told the world economic forum at Davos that the key priority for Africa was creating peace, security, stability, and democratic governance, as without which it would be impossible to engage in meaningful economic activity. South African Defence Minister Mosiuoa Lekota concurs that there will be no development without security (Heitman, 2005b:21). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 5 In an interview with Helmoed-Römer Heitman (2005a:34) the Chief of the South African (SA) Army, Lt Gen Solly Shoke, said, “It’s our duty to participate in PSOs.” Judging from the statements the Republic of South Africa (RSA) will remain involved in PSO in Africa for political, economic and moral reasons to help resolve conflicts on the continent, since ignoring them could mean instability that would impinge on South Africa economically and otherwise. Conflict, instability and a lack of security in Africa have been the key factors both in frightening off investment and in making self-funded economic development difficult (Morris, 2003:12). The core of PSO in Africa does no longer merely entail the deployment of armed forces, but the focus is on shifting towards a more integrated approach including reconstruction, development, stability, civilian involvement and humanitarian aspects (International Quality and Productivity Centre: 2006). Since 2000, SANDF soldiers have been deploying on the continent for peacekeeping missions (Tsedu, 2002:6). Jankielsohn (2003:21), a member of parliament, urges government to acknowledge that the SANDF has a limited capacity to deploy troops in PSO over long periods. It has neither the logistical nor the personnel capacity to do so. The SANDF has health problems arising from a 21% HIV/AIDS infection rate (Katzenellenbogen, 2004:3). According to Boshoff (Financial Mail, 2004:25) SANDF resources have stretched to the limit by its peacekeeping obligations, prompting a review of current policy. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 6 An index published in the International Security Review is of the opinion that South Africa’s military potency is slipping (Trench, 1998:15). According to Heitman (2003:12), an army lives and dies literally by its training. Soldiers, units and formations must train frequently, regularly and thoroughly for an army to be effective. Any slippage in the training programme will eventually result in casualties. Linking to this, one of the areas of greatest concern in South Africa is the extremely low level of education of the majority of the population (Jerling, 1999:12). More than 75% of the South African labour force is functionally illiterate in the sense that they do not have the skills that are required to perform most job tasks effectively and efficiently (Ernst, 2000:1). According to Harrison (1989:12), education directly and indirectly affects the development of knowledge and skills. Invariably, only people who are educated, trained and developed can be productive and contribute significantly (Erasmus and van Dyk, 1999: 15). In an environment of rapid change, Education, Training and Development (ETD), has become the driving force for meeting the demand for skilled workers to manage the new social and economic challenges (Van Dyk, Nel, Loedolff and Haasbroek, 2001:5). Van der Westhuizen (1998:34) agrees by stating that countries and organisations will only be able to cope with a fast changing world if they adopt an innovative approach to ETD. Allen (1998:2) says that training is fundamental in becoming more productive. As a result, to succeed the SANDF, other government and non-government organisations (NGOs) involved in PSO have no other alternative but to properly educate, train and develop its people (SA White Paper on Defence, 1996:10). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 7 By using ETD as force multiplier, the SANDF will be able to meet future force demands (Van der Westhuizen, 1998:11), and create learning conditions to prepare South Africans to meet the demands of globalisation (Brown and Brown, 1994:3-39). 1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The awareness of a problem base on the perception that not everything is as it should be (Wolmarans and Eksteen, 1987:8). There is a need for conceptual clarity on principles of doctrine for the conduct of increasingly complex peace operations - especially those where there are parties bent on using violence to derail the peace process. Programs such as those of the UN Institute for Training and Research Peacekeeping Operations Correspondence Instruction (UNITA POCI) and Co-operative Education are important to help bridge the illiteracy gap. However, it is also important that the African doctrine for PSO not only derive from abroad. African realities should inform military operations (MILOPS) that are inevitably different from the environment that has shaped European and American doctrinal development (Training for Peace, 2004:1). The researcher knows from experience that, in preparing its forces for peace support missions, the SA Army relies almost exclusively on a core of general-purpose combat training, supplemented by mission-specific training during the pre-conflict phase. The reliance on general-purpose combat training base on the conviction that troops well trained for high-intensity warfare would be well prepared for any scenario falling short of combat, including peacekeeping. It assumes that peacekeeping draws on the same set of skills as conventional A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 8 warfare, but tests soldiers to a lesser degree and that any necessary training beyond general-purpose combat training is achievable within the relatively short period between the notice of mission and a unit's actual deployment. Regrettably, this traditional approach to training is not adequate to give military personnel either the full range of skills or the appropriate orientation necessary to meet the diverse and complex challenges presented in African peace support operations. The topics relevant to training for PSO are many and complex and could possibly not be covered adequately in the pre-conflict phase, particularly in cases where that period measure in days. The failure of the formal training plan to provide satisfactorily for these non-combat skills arise primarily from the lack of doctrine recognising the need for such training and the lack of supporting training materials and standards. According to Malan, (1996:11) doctrinal elasticity and attempts to train soldiers "across the spectrum of conflict from stability operations to war,” must be avoided, for they imply a complex and confusing mix of the use of armed force on the one hand, with concepts such as neutrality, impartiality and the minimum use of necessary force on the other. Southern Africa simply lacks the foundational capacity to create forces that are ubiquitous and capable of discharging tasks across the spectrum of 'peace operation' roles. A more realistic vision would be the creation of a readily available, multilateral pool of competent peacekeepers at the regional or sub-regional level to prevent the reigniting of conflict and the creation of a separate, effective and rapidly deployable multilateral enforcement formation able to stop conflict before it gets serious. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 9 Van Dyk et al. (2001:175) differentiate between three types of problems: managerial, systems and performance. The absence of models of co-operative education on PSO in Africa at South African tertiary institutions points towards a performance problem. According to Van Niekerk (1991:60) to solve, a performance problem such as the lack of ability to do a certain task is to give members additional knowledge, skills and attributes (KSAs). For that reason, a much wider array of KSAs is required than is normally covered under general-purpose combat training. Broadening the KSA base through higher education is a means of shaping appropriate attitudes and setting the right expectations to help SA Army members and NGOs adapt to the demands of PSO. Langholtz, de Beer and Mostert (2003:7) acknowledge that direct supervision and field exercises are necessary to instruct hands-on technical skills. Yet, institutions of higher learning can provide co-operative education on PSO that are cognitive or knowledge based. This knowledge could include the UNITAR POCI courses, geo-political and security studies, international perceptions on PSO, international humanitarian law and the law of armed conflict, as well as other knowledge-based topics that peacekeepers need to understand in order to serve effectively on UN or AU missions. The motivation for the research is evident from the discussion above and because no Institute of Higher Learning in South Africa is currently contributing to the field of PSO in Africa, this proposed Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa could help to change the mindset of the major universities. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 10 1.3.1 RESEARCH STATEMENT A Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa will satisfy the need for tertiary education, improved knowledge, changed attitudes and assist to solve conflict in Africa. 1.3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The primary objectives for this research were to: • Carry out a need analysis in order to determine whether there is a need among SA Army officers in the SANDF for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa; • Prepare an instructional design (ISD) report for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa based on principles of scientific instructional design practice; and • Draft curriculum content on PSO in accordance with the principles of curriculum design. 1.3.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY The future continues to hold a high demographic risk of civil conflict in Africa. South Africa is in a state of transition and will remain as such for some time to come. The international community expects South Africa to become more involved in peacekeeping missions. The SA Army, however, has a limited capacity to deploy troops in PSO over long periods. It has neither the logistical, nor the personnel capacity to do so. The defence budget remains under pressure to such an extent that South African A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 11 military potency is slipping and will drop further if the lack of political will continues to hamper the effectiveness of the SA Army. If South Africa wants to play a leading role on an unstable continent, it must have a focused and functional defence force. The expectation is that traditional training methods in the SA Army will not be able to satisfy all the present and future human resource development needs, especially the need for competent peacekeepers. Within the overall educational philosophy of a combination of distance education and co-operative training, the nature of the proposed project is to fulfil the urgent need to change South African soldiers and other PSO stakeholders into unbiased diplomats. Peacekeepers must be acquainted with the political, military and socio-cultural dynamics of the crisis area. UNITAR POCI, University of South Africa (UNISA) and the Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT), in collaboration with the SANDF, and institutions such as the ISS could use distance education andragogy to achieve the objectives of peace, security and economic stability in Southern Africa. The focus of the SA Army from the onset should therefore be one of development in cooperation with other stakeholder organisations. Training peacekeepers via distance education is an inexpensive way for Institutions of Higher Learning to become involved and contribute. This could be a key step to assist in the development of a professional SANDF. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 12 The researcher is of the opinion that a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa will provide training and education for a wide variety of learners, in order to improve their ability to participate in multinational peace support and humanitarian operations. 1.4 GENERAL RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 1.4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN The overall plan followed is a non-experimental design. Based on the four-dimensional framework, it becomes possible to categorise the study as one of an empirical nature using primary and secondary sources, numerical and textual data type with medium control (Mouton, 2001:146). 1.4.2 POPULATION, SAMPLE AND SAMPLING The study included all officers in the SA Army (population) irrespective of rank, age or gender. In light of the size and complexity of the SANDF, the respondents (target population) selected from various units in the SA Army. A sample of approximately 90 officers randomly drawn from the SA Army reflects as closely as possible the characteristics of the entire population, although the selected sample can hardly ever be a mirror image of the population. 1.4.3 DATA COLLECTION METHOD A survey determines the need for a higher learning programme and assists to analyse the target group. An instructional design model formed the blueprint for the design of the proposed learning programme and curriculum. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 13 1.4.4 DATA ANALYSIS The appropriate method for interpreting data will be descriptive statistics as described by SPSS computer software (SPSS, 1999). Data recorded as numerical values enables the analysis of data by statistical means. Measurement took place on an ordinal level in order to rank data in terms of a formulated order. Descriptive frequencies converted to percentages illustrate the levels of agreement. 1.5 OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH REPORT Besides this introductory chapter, the report is organised into a further four chapters. Chapter 2, the literature review, contains the theoretical framework that has informed this research. The review involves the constructs of international peacekeeping, geo-politics and security studies, PSO in Africa, civil-military coordination and UNITAR POCI learning programs. Throughout the review, a theoretical basis for these constructs develop and it culminates in a summary from the material reviewed. Chapter 3 discusses the methodology that formed the foundation of the research. The research strategy, sampling, measuring instruments, data collection procedure, data analysis and limitations of the study are discussed. Chapter 4 presents the research results. Chapter 5 presents the conclusion and recommendations of this study. It argues the main findings by drawing together the results from the previous chapters into a programme strategy. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 68 CHAPTER 3 - RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION Chapter 3 documents the methods and procedures used to achieve the research objectives: to determine whether there is a need for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa, to design a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa in accordance with scientific instructional design (ISD) principles and to draft curriculum content on PSO in accordance with the principles of curriculum design. The chapter presents a discussion on the design of the study. It begins with an account of the sample that includes the sampling techniques employed and the criteria used in the choice of sample size. A description is given of the measuring instruments used to determine whether there is a need among military officers for PSO education and to analyse the possible target group that could participate in the program. Details of the data collection process that includes gaining access to the subjects, data collection techniques and the procedure used are reported on. The rationale behind the selection of data analysis procedures, as well as the actual procedures used is described and possible sources of limitation in the quality of data collected are discussed. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 69 3.2 DESIGN OF THE STUDY Research defines as the search for and the generation of new knowledge through scholarly work (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:43). The overall plan followed is a non-experimental design. In a non-experimental design there is no manipulation of the independent variable, nor is the setting strictly controlled (SANDF COLET, 2003a:9). Based on the four-dimensional framework, it becomes possible to categorise the study as one of an empirical nature using primary and secondary sources, as well as numerical and textual data type with medium control (Mouton, 2001:146). The design report and curriculum are classified as applied research, as they form part of an original investigation undertaken with the primary aim to expand on fundamental knowledge and to apply it after completion (Lategan, Vermeulen & Truscott, and 2003:1). The research is generally descriptive by nature and its main advantage is immediate application after having obtained results. The instructional design (ISD) is “applying scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical tasks of teaching and learning.” ISD technology translates and applies basic research (Newby et al., 2000:10). Learning theory forms part of the descriptive sciences which describe the way in which things function in the natural world, while the ISD forms part of the design sciences which offer means in which to perform certain human-defined tasks. Descriptive sciences are the law, while design sciences are roadmaps and there is always more than one way to get from point A to point B (Clark, 2000:15). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 70 In order to evaluate the programme content, the researcher will make use of a reputability study. This involves the researcher identifying experts from academic institutions. The comments and criticisms of these experts form the basis of the formative evaluation (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:50). The structure of this research design is a framework of clearly formulated decision steps as depicted in Figure 1. Figure 1: Research Design Framework DESIGN OF THE STUDY SAMPLING Source: Own 3.3 SAMPLING The researcher has the responsibility of defining the population to be studied (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:85). The study included all officers in the SANDF (population), irrespective of rank, age or gender. However, in the light of the size and complexity of the SANDF, the respondents (target population) have been selected from the South African Army (SA Army). RESEARCH DESRIPTION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT DESIGN DATA COLLECTION DATA ANALYSIS A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 71 The proposed units (sample frame) from which the respondents were drawn used probability cluster sampling, which included units in the SA Army. These units are representative of the mainstream of SANDF units and selected because they form part of the full time component, their members are utilised for force employment operations internally or externally and they are used for peace support operations under the auspices of the United Nations (UN) or African Union (AU). The abovementioned reasons make the sample representative of the total population (SANDF). The results are generalised to the total population. A sample randomly drawn from the units of the SA Army reflects as closely as possible the characteristics of the entire population, although the selected sample can rarely, if ever, be a mirror image of the population. Representivity implies that the sample has the same properties as the population from which it was drawn, but in smaller numbers (Welman & Kruger, 1999:45). All organisational levels were identified and included individual officers, irrespective of rank, age, gender, race or former force in order to ensure a representative sample. Criteria for inclusion in the sample required that participants had to be members of the armed forces, play an active role in the activities of their units, must have had at least two years of experience (in the case of officers) and the literacy level of respondents needed to include the ability to read, write and follow instructions. Subsequently, the population sample frame that completed the questionnaire consisted of 90 officers. According to Welman and Kruger (1999:50), no sample should be fewer than 15 units of analysis, but preferably more than 25. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 72 In order to ensure that each member at a specific unit had an equal chance of selection, the researcher used simple random probability sampling (Corbett and Le Rog, 2003:104). Firstly, a name list of all the officers at the respective units identified all the units of analysis in the sampling frame. A numerical number was allocated to each participant. Secondly, the mechanism selected a table of random numbers that showed no order, irrespective of whether one proceeded along its columns or rows to choose the unit of analysis that ensured that each number had an equal chance of being selected. In other words, if one started at any given number, there was no way in predicting the value of the next number. Next, the numbers of the units of analysis (in the sampling frame) encountered on the table of random numbers were written down. The advantage of a simple random sample is that it was representative of the population in the sense that it did not favour one unit of analysis (individual) over another (Welman and Kruger, 1999:51). The questionnaires were numbered and distributed according to the selected units of analysis. 3.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT The measuring instrument, with consideration of the specific objectives of the research, was an attitudinal scale questionnaire comprising sets of items to determine the need for a higher learning programme, assisting in the analysis of the target group. Even though perceptions, attitudes, feelings or the reaction of men and women may have limits, Schneider, Asworth, Higgs, and Carr (1996: 695), noted that significant correlations exist between employee reports of the practices and procedures under which they work, as well as judgements made by external observers. This suggests that people are an accurate gauge of the influence of one variable on others. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 73 According to Welman & Kruger (1999:150) the rationale for using a questionnaire by means of group contact is working with captive audiences that correspond to the administration of a test, since a single person is required to give instructions in one hall. The cost per questionnaire is lower and the supervisor is in full control of the completion of the questionnaires so that no respondent has an excuse not to complete his/her questionnaire. Subsequently, a response rate of 100% is ensured. Due to the presence of a supervisor, queries regarding the completion of the questionnaire were answered immediately. Another reason for using a questionnaire is that it identifies and describes the characteristics of the sample (Welman & Kruger, 1999:164). Advantages include the potential to generalise to large populations (Mouton, 2001:153). They are easily standardised, a low drain on time and finances and requires very little training of researchers (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:114). Disadvantages include a lack of depth and insider perspective that sometimes leads to criticism of "surface level" analysis (Mouton, 2001:153). It is difficult to check that the respondent understands the questions (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:114). The respondent may choose not to answer a question or questions (questionnaires are therefore not always complete), he/she may guess the answers if uncertain (this may lead to inaccurate results) and cannot clarify any response provided by the respondent (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003:48). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 74 3.5 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE The theoretical framework that informed the study was a literature search and review based on the aim and research objectives of the study as presented in Chapters 1 and 2. The review is sufficiently comprehensive and used essential information sources. It offers a logically organised and integrated summary and theories relevant to the aim of the study. Primary data comprised of an attitude scale questionnaire to collect individual-level data. Contact was made with the officers commanding of the applicable SA Army units to obtain authorisation and determine a suitable date, time, venue and contact person that will administer the completion of the questionnaire. The visitation programme and information with respect to the project included a description and layout of the nature and extent of the project, as well as an explanation of the procedure to complete the questionnaire. On the day of the survey, a questionnaire was handed to each respondent at the respective units as arranged and collected after completion on the same day. A pilot study assessed the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, the correctness of some concepts, the adequacy of the method and the instrument of measurement (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:43). The participants in the pilot study consisted of 15 officers of the Air Defence Artillery School and 20 officers of the Army Support Base Kimberley. The criteria for inclusion in the sample were that members had to be either combat participants, combat support participants or combat service support participants. They must have had at least two years of experience in the force and be willing to participate in PSO. The reason for including these respondents A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 75 is that they belong to SANDF units and have an interest in operations other than war. In designing the data-collection methods, the researcher concentrated on two important aspects that could have had a significant influence on the credibility and acceptability of the results. These two concepts are the reliability and validity of data-collection methods (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003:56). Effective questionnaire construction ensures measurement reliability and effective controls high construct validity (Mouton, 2001:153). An ISD model formed the blueprint for the design of the proposed learning programme and curriculum. A model is an abstract of a real world situation, the entire process of analysing learning needs and outcomes and the development of a delivery system to meet the outcomes (Briggs, 1977:28). The model assisted in providing a visual outline of the exact process that would follow. Singled out was the SANDF College of Educational Technology (COLET) basic model, as its design accommodates learning programme research and development requirements (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003b:12). The model provides all essential activities, is scientifically justifiable, simple and logical, shows the relationship between the components and makes provision for a feedback system across the entire system. The process includes analysing qualifications, formulating outcomes, determining and sequencing content, determining the delivery methods, training material and activities, assessment, programme strategy and curriculum development. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 76 The evaluation of the design report and curriculum entails a reputability study. This involved the Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT), identifying experts from within the community and academic institutions. Each expert received a draft copy of the design report, curriculum and a reaction sheet to complete. These experts voiced their opinions on the learning programme contents and the method of implementation. The comments and criticisms form the foundation of the summative evaluation (Bless and Higson-Smith, 1995:50). ISD based on the principles of Educational Technology makes a significant contribution towards the improvement of training quality. It not only facilitates the implementation of a systems approach, but also places training on a scientific basis from where informed decisions are possible. Various models for instructional design share most of the common, basic components (Walkinshaw, 1992:13). According to Van Dyk, Nel, Loedolff, and Haasbroek (2001:162), to be reliable and valid, a model needs to adhere to the following: Improve learning and instruction by means of the problem-solving and feedback characteristics of the systematic approach; Improve management of instructional design and development by means of monitoring and control functions of the systematic approach; Improve evaluation processes by means of the designated components and sequence of events, including the feedback and revision events inherent in models of systematic instructional design and test or build learning and instructional theory by means of a theory-based design within a model of instructional design. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 77 3.6 DATA ANALYSIS Statistical analysis is a method of rendering meaningful, quantitative information (SANDF College of Educational Technology, 2003a:62). After collecting data, an appropriate statistical method was selected to test the research question (Corbett and Le Rog, 2003:5). The appropriate method for interpreting data was descriptive statistics as described by SPSS computer software (SPSS, 1999). Data recorded as numerical values enable the analysis thereof by statistical means. Measurement took place on an ordinal level in order to rank data in terms of a formulated order. Descriptive frequencies are converted to percentages illustrating the levels of agreement. Statements accompany tables to describe the results. During instructional design, the method for interpreting data inherent to the Plan, Develop, and Assess (PDA) model of systematic instructional design used assessment of the designated components and sequence of events, including feedback and revision events. 3.7. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY This research functions within the following limitations: An attitude scales questionnaire does not directly observe the behaviour of subjects, but individuals report on it in terms of the questions put to them. These measuring instruments are therefore susceptible to measurement reactivity, the consequences of which may vary from withholding co-operation to deliberate deception. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 78 The participant's awareness that he/she is completing a measuring instrument may have affected his/her responses to the subsequent completion of the questionnaire. Participants might have responded in a manner not consistent with their true opinion, but what they think is the most suitable response or will portray them in a positive light. Dishonesty in surveys on the part of respondents is a problem (Corbett and Le Rog, 2003:111). Respondents being biased may be possible due to biases introduced by unresponsive participants, uncooperative participants answering at random and also by those who give false information on purpose due to mistrust, fear, conformity or social status pressures. Furthermore, one can add answers based on the misunderstanding of a question or word or the difficulty experienced by respondents in expressing themselves. The design and development of a learning programme require a considerable amount of funds for the procurement of books and other material, the development and production of instructional materials, the possible utilisation of consultants and printing costs. The choice of instructional methods and strategies may be a constraint that requires consideration. As the fulltime availability of learners is in doubt, it restricts programme design options. It is possible to underestimate the development of a new programme, especially if the design of the programme is subject to effective evaluation before implementation. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 79 According to Langholtz, de Beer and Mostert (2003:11) problems may arise in extending the learning programme to other countries in Africa in support of the NEPAD initiative. Effective evaluation and refinement of the programme is therefore necessary before offering it to other African countries. 3.8 CONCLUSION This chapter explained the methods and procedures that were used to achieve the research objectives. A non-experimental quantitative design expanded on concepts, ideas and constructs to answer the research questions. The approach considered scientific instructional design based on the principles of educational technology. The participants (target population) were selected from the SANDF. The measuring instrument with consideration of the objectives of the study was an attitudinal scale questionnaire. The theoretical framework that informed the study was a literature review based on the aim and problem statement of the project. Primary data comprising of an attitudinal scale questionnaire were used to collect individual level data. The pilot study conducted indicated that no changes to the questionnaire were necessary. The members involved in the pilot study did not form part of the main study. The data analysis of the main survey was carried out by using the SPSS statistical package. It was also indicated that the starting point to the ISD process was an ISD model. Possible limitations were indicated. The chapters that follow record the results of the study by the presentation and the interpretation of data and show the extent of ISD used to produce a design report and curriculum concerning a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 80 CHAPTER 4 - RESEARCH RESULTS 4.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is an account of the results of the study according to the research objectives, presented in the form of an ISD report. The reporting begins with Section 1 on Need Analysis, reflecting whether there is a need among SA Army officers in the SANDF for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa. It also answers the question on the best method to design such a learning programme. Section 2 presents a job description and target group analysis. The purpose of the job description was to establish generic job performance and to identify training needs from which learning outcomes will derive. The aim of the target group analysis is to create a learner profile that describes the characteristics of the target population. The purpose of Section 3 was to align the generic job requirement of a peacekeeper with the training needs. The job requirement, the qualification and the unit standards are required to match. This, together with the information from the literature review, translates into exit outcomes and specific outcomes. Sections 4, 5, 6 and 7 describe the development of ETD opportunities with reference to development, delivery and assessment. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 81 4.2 SECTION 1 – NEED ANALYSIS Chapter 1 established that there is a need for PSO education. No major university in South Africa is currently contributing towards education in the field of generic PSO in Africa. Broadening the knowledge and skills based through higher education is a means of shaping appropriate attitudes and setting the right expectations to help SANDF members and NGOs adapt to the demands of PSO. The purpose of this section is to determine whether there is a need for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa amongst officers of the SA Army and, if there is, how to design such a curriculum. Van Dyk et al. (1992:164) articulate that a needs analysis has the purpose of assessing the unique requirements of a situation. According to Rothwell and Kazanas (1992:46), a needs assessment is a scheme for collecting information concerning ETD needs. This section essentially focuses on the following critical questions and possible course considerations: • UCritical Question 1U: Is there a need among SA Army officers in the SANDF for a Model of Co-operative Education on generic PSO in Africa? • UCritical Question 2U: What is the best method to design such a learning programme? A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 82 4.2.1 UCRITICAL QUESTION 1U: IS THERE A NEED AMONG SA ARMY OFFICERS IN THE SANDF FOR A MODEL OF CO-OPERATIVE EDUCATION ON GENERIC PSO IN AFRICA? 4.2.1.1 UAttitudinal surveyU. An attitudinal questionnaire assisted in establishing whether there is a need for a model on co-operative education amongst officers of the SA Army. Table 1: Survey Results Peace missions are multi-dimensional operations with a political, economical, social, legal and security-related focus. The military is one of many role players in the processes in which civilians and police officers have become essential to the success of PSO. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 3 3.3 3.3 3.3 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 5.6 Uncertain 9 10.0 10.0 15.6 Agree 42 46.7 46.7 62.2 Strongly agree 34 37.8 37.8 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 4 4.4 4.4 4.4 Disagree 8 8.9 8.9 13.3 Uncertain 6 6.7 6.7 20.0 Agree 37 41.1 41.1 61.1 Strongly agree 35 38.9 38.9 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 83 The SANDF relies on general-purpose combat training supplemented by missionspecific training to prepare soldiers for peace missions. General-purpose training on its own is not adequate to equip military personnel with the full range of skills required to meet the challenges presented in African PSO. Training in non-combat skills is as important as general-purpose combat training if one is to succeed as a peacekeeper. I need more peacekeeping training and experience to do my job as a peacekeeper well. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 4 4.4 4.4 4.4 Disagree 4 4.4 4.4 8.9 Uncertain 11 12.2 12.2 21.1 Agree 55 61.1 61.1 82.2 Strongly agree 16 17.8 17.8 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 13 14.4 14.4 15.6 Uncertain 20 22.2 22.2 37.8 Agree 33 36.7 36.7 74.4 Strongly agree 23 25.6 25.6 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 3 3.3 3.3 3.3 Disagree 6 6.7 6.7 10.0 Uncertain 9 10.0 10.0 20.0 Agree 47 52.2 52.2 72.2 Strongly agree 25 27.8 27.8 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 4 4.4 4.4 4.4 Disagree 3 3.3 3.3 7.8 Uncertain 8 8.9 8.9 16.7 Agree 40 44.4 44.4 61.1 Strongly agree 35 38.9 38.9 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 84 It is not necessary for all members of the SANDF to undergo formal training in PSO. Current SANDF courses on PSO are too short. There is sufficient time to put theory into practice. The PSO course content should be more in-depth. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 26 28.9 28.9 28.9 Disagree 38 42.2 42.2 71.1 Uncertain 8 8.9 8.9 80.0 Agree 10 11.1 11.1 91.1 Strongly agree 8 8.9 8.9 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 2 2.2 2.2 2.2 Disagree 9 10.0 10.0 12.2 Uncertain 43 47.8 47.8 60.0 Agree 21 23.3 23.3 83.3 Strongly agree 15 16.7 16.7 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 4 4.4 4.4 4.4 Disagree 30 33.3 33.3 37.8 Uncertain 28 31.1 31.1 68.9 Agree 22 24.4 24.4 93.3 Strongly agree 6 6.7 6.7 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 9 10.0 10.0 11.1 Uncertain 31 34.4 34.4 45.6 Agree 32 35.6 35.6 81.1 Strongly agree 17 18.9 18.9 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 85 The PSO course content focuses too much on general-purpose combat training (conventional warfare). The variety of PSO courses in the SANDF is limited. Everybody has equal access to current PSO training. I enjoy attending long courses away from home (3 months and longer). Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 14 15.6 15.6 16.7 Uncertain 39 43.3 43.3 60.0 Agree 27 30.0 30.0 90.0 Strongly agree 9 10.0 10.0 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 3 3.3 3.3 3.3 Disagree 8 8.9 8.9 12.2 Uncertain 34 37.8 37.8 50.0 Agree 38 42.2 42.2 92.2 Strongly agree 7 7.8 7.8 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 16 17.8 17.8 17.8 Disagree 28 31.1 31.1 48.9 Uncertain 23 25.6 25.6 74.4 Agree 18 20.0 20.0 94.4 Strongly agree 5 5.6 5.6 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 14 15.6 15.6 15.6 Disagree 35 38.9 38.9 54.4 Uncertain 10 11.1 11.1 65.6 Agree 21 23.3 23.3 88.9 Strongly agree 10 11.1 11.1 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 86 I prefer training to take place at my local unit. Members will be more motivated to attend military courses if the courses are accredited at an external tertiary education institution. The SANDF does not need a culture of lifelong learning. Training enhances employee confidence. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 8 8.9 8.9 8.9 Disagree 25 27.8 27.8 36.7 Uncertain 10 11.1 11.1 47.8 Agree 32 35.6 35.6 83.3 Strongly agree 15 16.7 16.7 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 4 4.4 4.4 4.4 Disagree 6 6.7 6.7 11.1 Uncertain 8 8.9 8.9 20.0 Agree 33 36.7 36.7 56.7 Strongly agree 39 43.3 43.3 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 33 36.7 36.7 36.7 Disagree 26 28.9 28.9 65.6 Uncertain 12 13.3 13.3 78.9 Agree 10 11.1 11.1 90.0 Strongly agree 9 10.0 10.0 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 4 4.4 4.4 5.6 Uncertain 2 2.2 2.2 7.8 Agree 35 38.9 38.9 46.7 Strongly agree 48 53.3 53.3 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 87 Officers and Warrant Officers will be more motivated to attend courses if the focus is on self-development. All Warrant Officers and Officers in the SANDF should have the opportunity to obtain a relevant tertiary qualification. I would attend a United Nations accredited national diploma/degree course on PSO if granted the opportunity. A national diploma/degree on PSO will allow us to create a competitive advantage in developing new knowledge and skills for the future. Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 2 2.2 2.2 2.2 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 4.4 Uncertain 11 12.2 12.2 16.7 Agree 41 45.6 45.6 62.2 Strongly agree 34 37.8 37.8 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 3.3 Uncertain 5 5.6 5.6 8.9 Agree 33 36.7 36.7 45.6 Strongly agree 49 54.4 54.4 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 3.3 Uncertain 9 10.0 10.0 13.3 Agree 25 27.8 27.8 41.1 Strongly agree 53 58.9 58.9 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 3.3 Uncertain 4 4.4 4.4 7.8 Agree 33 36.7 36.7 44.4 Strongly agree 50 55.6 55.6 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 88 Correspondence instruction with regular contact sessions is a good idea. A national diploma/degree qualification will assist officers and warrant officers towards a new career after retrenchment or early pension. 4.2.1.2 UData Interpretation and findings of the survey indicate the followingU: There is broad consensus among officers of the SA Army that the SANDF relies on general-purpose combat training (GPCT), supplemented by mission specific PSO training to prepare for peace missions (80% agree/strongly agree). Members agree/strongly agree that GPCT on its own is not adequate to equip military personnel with the full range of skills required to meet the challenges present in African PSO (79%). SA Army officers is of the opinion that training in non-combat skills is as important as GPCT if one is to succeed as a peacekeeper (80% agree/strongly agree). The majority of SA Army officers felt that there is a need for more peacekeeping training and experience to execute their jobs as peacekeepers effectively (83.3% agree/strongly agree). Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 3 3.3 3.3 3.3 Disagree 3 3.3 3.3 6.7 Uncertain 7 7.8 7.8 14.4 Agree 38 42.2 42.2 56.7 Strongly agree 39 43.3 43.3 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Strongly disagree 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 Disagree 2 2.2 2.2 3.3 Uncertain 5 5.6 5.6 8.9 Agree 33 36.7 36.7 45.6 Strongly agree 49 54.4 54.4 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 89 Seventy one percent (71%) of the respondents strongly agree/agree that it is necessary for all members of the SANDF to undergo peacekeeping training. More than half of the respondents, 55% agree or strongly agree that PSO courses should be in more depth. The respondents believe that members will be motivated to attend additional training if a tertiary institution accredits such training (80% strongly agree/agree). A large number of the SA Army officers (65.6%) participating in the survey is of the opinion that the SANDF needs a culture of lifelong learning. The vast majority (92%) of SA Army officers agree/strongly agree that training enhances confidence. Respondents agree or strongly agree (91%) that all warrant officers and officers in the SANDF should get the opportunity to obtain a relevant tertiary qualification. The large numbers of 86.7% agree or strongly agree that they would attend a UN accredited, national diploma/degree course in PSO. Results indicate clearly that a national diploma/degree in PSO will allow the SANDF to create a competitive advantage in developing new knowledge and skills for the future (92.3% agree/strongly agree). Respondents indicate that correspondence instruction with regular contact sessions is a good idea to present a learning program such as PSO (85.5% agree/strongly agree). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 90 The attitude of 91% (agree/strongly agree) of SA Army officers is that a national diploma/degree qualification will assist them and warrant officers in starting a new career after leaving the defence force. 4.2.1.3 USummaryU The results of the survey confirm that a performance problem exists. The survey results are a very strong indicator of the attitude of SA Army officer in the SANDF towards PSO training and higher education on PSO. The results of the survey confirm that there is an unambiguous need for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa among SA Army officers in the SANDF. ETD cannot be planned in isolation or according to own standards. The design of a learning programme must take place within the context of the ETD environment as it has developed and exists today. Legislation such as national standards and qualifications, unit standards, outcomes-based education and training and relevant role-players govern outcomes (SANDF COLET, 2003b:67). Although there are existing courses presented by UNITAR POCI, other international institutions and defence forces, it is important that African doctrine for PSO should not only derive from abroad. African realities are inevitably different from the environment that has shaped European and American doctrinal development. A deduction is that the learner target group will not be available on a full time basis. The probable learning approach is correspondence instruction or first generation distance education supported with second-generation distance A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 91 education, which includes limited face-to-face co-operative education supported with distance education modes of delivery such as e-learning (CF. Badenhorst, 2004). This multimode method offers flexible in-service training of peacekeeping militia all over the world, in essence, the co-operative training model per excellence. Distance education is most effective when used to reach a large population of geographically distributed learners who require standard training in knowledgebased topics and when the training must be delivered directly to learners without delay and at a low per-learner cost. (Langholtz, de Beer, and Mostert, 2003:11). However, not all the factors that could influence this solution are available and therefore a final decision with regard to programme approach is not yet possible. 4.2.2 UCRITICAL QUESTION 2U: WHAT IS THE BEST METHOD TO DESIGN A LEARNING PROGRAM? Achieving concurrence with international and national obligations and needs became important when South Africa joined international organisations, of which the most significant are the UN, AU and the SADC. The resulting involvement in multi-national peace PSO on the African continent provides the direction for ETD requirements at different levels. The need to transform the education and training approach in South Africa reflects in the Constitution of the RSA, Act 108 of 1996, deciding on an outcomes-based education (OBE) and training approach (SANDF COLET, 2006:1). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 92 The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) is the RSA’s answer to global and national demands for a change in the approach to ETD, promulgating an ETD system, which is learner-centred and will encourage learners to accept responsibility for their own learning (van der Westhuizen, 1998:29). The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) (Act 85 0f 1995), states that the purpose of all ETD is to equip learners with KSAs that will enable meaningful participation in society. The National Skills Development Strategy, the Skills Development Act (Act 97 of 1998) and the DOD Human Resource (HR) 2010 Strategy compel the SA DOD to enable its employees to transfer KSAs to meaningful civilian careers outside the SANDF (DOD Strategy 2010, DoD: White Paper, 1998:23; National Skills Strategy; Skills Development Act 97 of 1998). The SA DOD recognises that it is necessary to establish ETD standards that promote approval, excellence, recognition and accreditation (De Vries, 1997: 33). The future goal is to educate, train and develop decision-makers in the SA DOD who are “fit for the challenges of the 21P st P century” (Modise, 1997:2). Van Dyk, Nel and Loedolff (1992:147) define education as activities aimed at developing knowledge, moral values and understanding required in all aspects of life. According to Jerling, (1999:3) education is a comprehensive concept and may even include the concepts of training and development. Erasmus and Van Dyk (1999:2) define training as a systematic and planned process to change the KSAs of employees in order to achieve organisational objectives. Van Dyk et al. (2001: 148) define training as a systematic process of changing the behaviour and/or attitudes of people in a certain direction to increase goal achievement within the organisation. Zemke (1999:8) states that training is about giving people the knowledge and skills to do their jobs. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 93 De Cenzo and Robbins (1994:255) suggest that development focuses on future jobs in the organisation. Development refers to possibilities within a job, with reference to the employee’s personal growth and goals (Nel, Gerber, Van Dyk, H. Schultz, and Sono, 2001:49). Development aims to empower employees serving in a managerial capacity or preparing for managerial posts within the organisation (Van Dyk et al. 2001:148), referring to learning opportunities designed to help individuals grow (Bernadin and Russell, 1993:297). It is essential to see the concepts of education, training and development in relation to one another if both the organisation and employees are to benefit. Education is essential for every individual, both for life in general and the workplace in particular. Training and development will succeed only if the individual has received an adequate standard of education. Training is necessary to correct work procedures and improve performance at the workplace. Development, on the other hand, should enrich not only the individual, but also the group. From this, it is clear that these concepts are interrelated (Zwane, 1995 in Jerling 1999:3). SAQA accepted OBE as the prescribed system for all education and training programmes, which require accreditation in terms of the NQF (Van Dyk et al. 2001:150). OBE implies that everything focuses on what is essential for the learner to be able to do at the end of the learning experience (Spady, 1994:2). According to SANDF COLET (2006:2), OBE is as an approach, which focuses on the outcomes of learning, with the emphasis on what the learner should be able to do. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 94 The concept of educational technology (Ed Tech) has become increasingly important in the field of ETD. Technology is the systematic application of scientific or other related knowledge to practical tasks (Galbraith, 1967: 12), concerned with teaching (Knirk and Gustafson, 1986:16), applying scientific knowledge regarding human learning to teaching and learning (Heinrich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino, 1993:16). Definitions that is more recent states Ed Tech is the theory and practice of design, development and evaluation of processes and resources of learning (Seels, 1995:1) or the use of knowledge, systems and techniques to enhance human learning. It is a broader applied discipline within the broader science of education. Essential characteristics of Ed Tech are that it supports a systems approach, continuous evaluation and learning programmes designed according to instructional design (Van der Walt, 2005: V). So, why use ISD to create a learning programme? Simply stated, ISD is a common sense approach to ETD. It analyses the problem, designs a specification, develops the courseware, implements the solution and performs evaluations throughout the process (Clark 2000:1). ISD is a means of planning a learning programme from the point of need analysis until the presentation of the programme. It is a process to create effective training in an efficient manner (SANDF COLET, 2003b:2) and to translate principles of learning into plans for learning activities and materials (Smith and Ragan, 1999:2). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 95 Newby, Stepich, Lehman, and Russell (2000:67) has a similar view by describing ISD as a systematic process for developing plans for instruction through practical application of theoretical principles. 4.2.2.1 UPoint of DepartureU ETD that occurs within an organisation typically has one main purpose, the improvement of organisation effectiveness (Langenbach, 1993:11). The ETD process is self-sustaining, continuously improved and updated, based on the feedback fed into the process. The ETD process (see figure 2) is the point of departure for the design of this learning programme, further enhanced through an ISD model (SANDF COLET, 2003b:11). Figure 2: ETD process Source: Adapted form SANDF COLET, 2003b:18 A variety of ISD models related to the ETD process explains how the ETD processes apply in different situations (Jerling, 1999:70). Dick and Carey (1996:4) emphasise that there is no single approach for designing instruction. Analyse Design Deliver Evaluate Feedback A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 96 The various models, however, all share the same basic components. Models are very useful, as they enhance the chances of success in training design (Van Dyk et al. 2001:162). The intention was not to describe each of the following models in any detail, but rather to concentrate on the main activities of the ISD process in general. The models examined included the high-impact model (Chang, 1994:15), Nadler’s critical events model (Nadler, 1982:12), the model of Camp, Blanchard and Huszco (Camp et al, 1986:4), the outcomes-based curriculum design (Olivier, 1998:44), generic competency-based training model (Blank, 1982:26), literacy curriculum model of Newman (Langenbach, 1993:82) and the COLET basic model (SANDF COLET, 2003b:14). The various model’s all share the same basic components (Van Dyk et al., 2001:162) illustrated in figure 3 (Bramley, 1991:6). The situation within each organisation determines the model of choice. Figure 3: The main elements of ISD Source: Bramley 1991:6 1. Identification of the training need 2. Training Objective 3. Selection and design of programmes 4. Carry out training 5. Evaluative feedback loops A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 97 A customised model named Plan, Develop and Assess (PDA) incorporates the various elements of training design for the design of this learning programme. The PDA model meets the terms of an instructional design model as it does the following: • Adjusts to the SANDF’s training system and training approach. • Provides for all the essential activities. • Is scientifically justifiable. • Is simple and logic. • Clearly indicates the mutual relationship between the components. • Makes provision for a feedback system across the entire system. • Is suitable for the particular situation. The model has a built-in validity check and openness in the form of the evaluation and feedback loop that forms part of each event in the model. The model has definite inputs and outputs and the following main steps: plan, develop and assess. The PDA model consists of the components illustrated in figure 4 and applies as follows: • All the steps of the models’ planning component are utilised in the design of the learning programme. • Use all the steps of the models development component during planning for the further development of the programme. • The application of two steps of the models assessment component is relevant to the final report namely planning assessment criteria and reputability study. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 98 Figure 4: PDA Model of Instructional Design Source: Newby et al. 2000:8 Input Transformation Output Environmental Influences Resources: People Material Information Finances Plan Develop Assessment Feedback Deliver Evaluation Improve KSA’s Job Competence Organisation Effectiveness Productivity Design Plan Develop Assess Job description and Target group analysis Formulate Outcomes Analyse Training Need Analysis of Outcomes Learning Content Delivery Methods Learning Material Assessment Programme strategy Curriculum Assessment Criteria Reputability Study Feedback and Improve/adjust Input Output A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 99 A simple map of the model as illustrated guides the design of the learning programme. Figure 5 shows integration of the PDA model into ETD process. Figure 5: ISD Model integration Source: Own 4.2.2.2 USummaryU The purpose of this section was threefold: to confirm whether there is a problem with regard to training, to consider broad course options, to determine whether there is a need for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa and to indicate how to design the envisaged programme. The technique used to collect information for the establishment of the training need was an attitudinal survey. The survey results indicate a training gap and confirm the need amongst SA Army officers in the SANDF to participate in a tertiary programme on PSO in Africa. The next section presents a job description and target group analysis. Analyse Design Delivery Evaluation Feedback P = Plan D = Develop A = Assess A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 100 4.3 SECTION 2: JOB DESCRIPTION AND TARGET GROUP ANALYSIS 4.3.1 UINTRODUCTIONU Section 1 established that there is a training need among SA Army officers in the SADF to participate in a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa. The section also made a declaration of departure point by identifying a model of ISD to assist in the compilation of the design report and curriculum. The purpose of section 2 is to carry out a job analysis and analyse the target group for which the proposed Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa is designed. The purpose of the job analysis is to establish generic job performance and identify training needs from which learning outcomes will be derived. The aim of the target group analysis is to create a learner profile that describes the characteristics of the target population for whom the training programme is designed. If a training programme has to provide a worthwhile return on investment, it must be relative to the job. This means that the learning experiences provided for the learners during the training must be directly related to the duties and tasks they have to perform in the job situation. Consequently, it is essential that the job performance requirements, including accurate and objective job data, are gathered and analysed. Accurate training needs can be determined from job performance requirements (Van Dyk et al. 2001:191). Nadler (1982:47) maintains that, to specify job performance data, it is necessary to separate the person from the job and merely concentrate on the job. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 101 4.3.2 UJOB DESCRIPTIONU 4.3.2.1 UIntroduction A comprehensive job description consists out of a job and task analysis, providing the trainer with useful information. Job analysis discover what tasks need to be performed in order to do the job and therefore, what needs to be learned in order to perform effectively (Bramley, 1991:11) in the process of collecting, tabulating, grouping, analysing, interpreting and reporting data pertaining to the work performed by individuals (Tracy, 1984:88). Erasmus and Van Dyk (1999:199) add that job analysis deals with the identification of various tasks and the knowledge, skills, abilities and responsibilities that a person must have in order to perform the job. Task analysis is the process of breaking down a task into smaller units and then sequencing these units in order of priority based on their importance in performing the job (Carnevale, Gainer, and Meltzer., 1990:44), providing a comprehensive description of the task (Wolmarans and Eksteen, 1987:102). A job description, therefore, comprises of a list of functions and tasks within a particular job (Van Dyk et al. 2001:192). Tracy (1984:91) states that regardless of how well the subsequent steps in instructional design, development and validation are carried out, if job data is not complete, valid and reliable, the resulting system will fail to produce personnel who are capable of performing their duties at an acceptable level of proficiency. The method used in this section includes a combination of methods such as the questionnaire, the walk-and-talk technique and the analysis of PSO manuals. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 102 4.3.2.2 UGeneric Job Description of a PeacekeeperU • The officer in a peacekeeping role must be able to serve on a UN or AU peacekeeping missions as a field operator in various positions such as military observer, liaison officer, staff officer, and commanding officer. Execute as part of a contingent, different types of peace operations in accordance with regulations and procedures. • The officer must be able to plan, integrate (organise), direct and control the activities of human and other resources allocated to him/her. • He/she guides work operations through the establishment of objectives, application of policies, rules, practices, methods and standards in order to prepare and ensure that elements under command is mission ready. • He/she needs to promote a sense of intelligence/security awareness amongst subordinates. Collect, analyse, organise and critically assess any information relevant to peacekeeping missions in Africa to make a sound judgement of any given situation. • Ensure a high standard of training with regard to different types of peace operations. Satisfy the need for tertiary education, improved knowledge and changed attitudes towards peace missions in Africa. Assess peacekeeping operations from an international perspective in order to apply lessons learnt in the African peacekeeping environment. • Accept the responsibility for logistic planning, equipment, stores and buildings under control. Monitor the financial planning and control expenditure of allocated funds. • Apply the elements of a geo-political study in order to compile a geopolitical profile of a given country in Africa for peacekeeping purposes. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 103 • Contribute to the CIMIC process by working in close collaboration with local authorities, UN peacekeeping forces and other agencies in ensuring safe access to vulnerable populations of concern. • Ensure the essential dialogue and interaction between agencies and military actors that are required to protect, promote and ensure that humanitarian principles are applied and humanitarian operational goals achieved and, in doing so, any inconsistency in the pursuit of appropriate common goals is de-conflicted and/or minimised. • Advocate that peacekeeping forces apply the “Law of Armed Conflict” (LOAC) and facilitate awareness training. Display the attitudes required to become an unbiased diplomat under the African Union or United Nations flag for peacekeeping operations. • Be able to act as military observer and report on activities in his/her sector of operations. The officer has to maintain impartiality and objectivity in his/her dealings. • The officer needs to be fluent in written and spoken English, physically fit, not HIV positive, of sound mental character, mature in attitude and outlook and equipped with the appropriate qualifications and experience for the mission. He/she must be in possession of a Code 8 driver’s licence. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 104 4.3.3 UTARGET GROUP ANALYSIS Training design places the learner central in the learning process (Walkinshaw, 1992:14). Therefore, a description of the learner group designated to participate in the learning program is important to determine entry requirements and decide on instructional methods, media, and techniques and approaches most appropriate (Van Dyk et al. 2001:178). The results obtained from the survey questionnaire reflect in table 2 and form the basis for the description and analysis of the target group. Table 2: Target group analysis survey results Gender Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Male 81 90.0 90.0 90.0 Female 9 10.0 10.0 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Rank Group Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Lt Col 9 10.0 10.0 10.0 Major 33 36.7 36.7 46.7 Captain 24 26.7 26.7 73.3 Lieutenant 16 17.8 17.8 91.1 Warrant-0fficer 8 8.9 8.9 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Age Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent 24 and younger 1 1.1 1.1 1.1 25 and older 89 98.9 98.9 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 105 Academic Qualification Language Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent English 43 47.8 47.8 47.8 Afrikaans 42 46.7 46.7 94.4 African Language 5 5.6 5.6 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Experience Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent 0-5 years 2 2.2 2.2 2.2 6-10 years 36 40.0 40.0 42.2 11-15 years 25 27.8 27.8 70.0 16-20 years 18 20.0 20.0 90.0 21-30 years 9 10.0 10.0 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Learning Style Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Activist 21 23.3 23.3 23.3 Reflector 11 12.2 12.2 35.6 Theorist 19 21.1 21.1 56.7 Pragmatist 39 43.3 43.3 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Cultural Factor Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Own community culture 13 14.4 14.4 14.4 Military culture 46 51.1 51.1 65.6 Functional group 5 5.6 5.6 71.1 National culture 26 28.9 28.9 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Grade 10 3 3.3 3.3 3.3 Grade 12 67 74.4 74.4 77.8 Certificate 5 5.6 5.6 83.3 Diploma 8 8.9 8.9 92.2 Degree 7 7.8 7.8 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 106 Peace support operations course Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Yes 32 35.6 35.6 35.6 No 58 64.4 64.4 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 Peace support operations deployment Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Yes 21 23.3 23.3 23.3 No 69 76.7 76.7 100.0 Valid Total 90 100.0 100.0 4.3.3.1 UTarget Group Description and AnalysisU A target group description gives an account of the characteristics that members of the target group have in common, i.e. “as is”, whereas the analysis obtain information that could be valuable when specifically developing the learning programme and how it will influence the learning programme (SANDF COLET, 2004:6). Using the data obtained from the survey the following target group description and analysis was possible using the criteria biographical, background information and attitude: UBiographical Information UCultureU. All are South Africans coming from diverse backgrounds. The largest percentage, 51%, views the military culture as the most important, whereas 28.9% prefers national culture. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 107 The relationship between the different ethnic groups will vary in accordance with the degree in which their religious beliefs, values, language and customs correlate. Difference in mother tongue is frequently associated with ethnic differences; this could possibly lead to problems in a diverse group. Insufficient communication on the levels of training, administration and operational experience can lead to a lesser amount of effectiveness. Different attitudes and values characterise various ethnic groups. These attitudes and values form part of the education of the individual and form the basis for his/her outlook on life. These differences have an influence on the receptiveness of training, as well as the skill to perform normal daily military tasks and activities. It is therefore very important that all learners train in cross–cultural aspects and facilitators are sensitive towards issues of diversity. A strong a-political stance is necessary. Fortunately, the majority of respondents (51%) view the military culture as most important. UThe languageU of respondents includes English, Afrikaans, and various African languages. Language is not only a vehicle for communication; it is also a symbol of national and ethnic alliance. Problems could therefore arise in the selection of a language programme. One could avoid this by selecting a language that is not exclusive to any ethnic grouping. The survey results indicate that the majority of respondents prefer English as their language of choice; therefore, the thread language for the learning program will be English. Members can understand, write, read and communicate in English. This will enhance the effectiveness of communication. Forty eight percent (48%) of the members that participated in the survey prefer English as the common language. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 108 U Age.U All the officers and warrant offices included in the survey were over the age of 25 years, i.e. the average age of the learner group is between 25 and 60 years. Learners are all adults and able to follow a routine and adhere to discipline. Adults have a need to learn, are motivated, participate actively in the learning process and take responsibility for learning. The average age of the learners is 35 years. Most of the members are in their mid-career. Normally this is a time of success and major achievement. Members are therefore eager to learn as much as they can in order to advance their careers. According to Robbins (2001:33- 36), age has no influence on productivity and therefore we conclude that no prospective members on this learning programme should have trouble with added responsibility. Older workers and those with longer tenure are less likely to resign. UGenderU. Eighty-one (81) male and nine (9) female officers completed the survey. The researcher assumes that gender should not have a significant impact on the program. According to Robbins (2001: 33-36), few differences affect performance between men and women. However, preferences for work schedules differ – working mothers prefer part-time work, flexible work schedules and telecommuting in order to accommodate family responsibilities. It might be difficult for them to attend anticipate contact sessions. In the case of absence and turn over rates, evidence is mixed. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 109 UServiceU years of the participants in the SANDF range from one to 30 years. Results indicate that the majority of members (77%) have between 6 and 15 years of experience in the military. A wide variety of experience could compliment learning. Robbins (2001:33-36) says tenure has consistently related negatively to turnover. It is one of the single best predictors of turnover. Survey results indicate that the majority of respondents have between 6 and 15 years of service and therefore fall in a very stable category concerning turnover. URank groupU: Warrant officer to Lieutenant Colonel. Approximately 63% are in the rank group Captain to Major. This indicates that officers that took part in the survey are senior members with experience of the military culture, values and norms. These members are able to take responsibility for their own learning. They have mutual respect for one another; and different learning experiences form a rich source of information. UMusteringU: All the respondents are from the military, coming from different service components within the SA Army. The majority of members (82%) are from the teeth arms of the SA Army and includes infantry, armour, artillery, air defence artillery, intelligence and field engineers. This means that all understand the use of military terminology and acronym examples. Most share a common culture in the military. All members of the SANDF have done general-purpose combat training and therefore have a solid foundation as a starting point to convert into unbiased peacekeepers. All members have common organisational outcomes, and teamwork is established. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 110 UPhysical Disabilities.U None of the respondents has physical disabilities. Therefore, there is need for any special arrangements. A peacekeeper working in the field of physical PSO needs to fit according to military standards. The Umarital StatusU of the group is either married or single. Marital status should not have a direct impact on the programme. There are not enough studies to draw any conclusions regarding the effect of marital status on productivity. However, Robbins (2001:33-36)) remarks that married employees have fewer absences, less turnover and report higher job satisfaction than unmarried employees do. UBackground Information U Academic and Formal Qualifications.U The majority (74.4%) has grade 12. Twenty-two and five percent (22.5%) has tertiary qualifications. This means that all respondents are literate i.e. can read, write and comprehend information. They are able to identify and solve problems, carry out information processing and have an understanding of systems. Therefore, they will be able to organise themselves and their activities. UMilitary Qualifications.U Military qualifications range from senior Noncommissioned officer (NCO) programs to junior command and staff duties program. All members have completed basic training, individual specialised training, sub-unit and unit training, integrated training and a wide array of other general-purpose combat training. The researcher concludes that a wide range of military experience gives the opportunity to use the existing competencies among members to the benefit of learning in the PSO field. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 111 UPrevious experience relating to the topic of PSOU. The majority of respondents (64.4%) have not completed a course in PSO. Of the respondents, 76.7% have not yet deployed as peacekeepers. The results of the survey show that some members have deployed externally without having completed a formal peacekeeping course, indicating that there is a performance gap. The researcher reaffirms that the SANDF generally relies on general-purpose combat training with pre-deployment peace training to prepare its soldiers for peacekeeping missions. ULearner’s Attitude ULearning styleU preferences common to this group include; Pragmatist 43%, Activist 23.3% and Theorist 21.1%. This result means that the learning program needs to cater for all learning styles, especially during contact sessions. Pragmatists, the majority, would prefer practical exercises such as coaching and demonstrations. Activists would like to participate in competitive work and role-play exercises, whereas Reflectors would rather prefer to work individually, listen to a formal lecture or watch a video. Theorists would like to solve complex problems and conduct research. Other learner attitudes such as what motivates them, what are their prime interests, what will hinder learning, an awareness of the advantages of attending the learning programme, whether forced or voluntarily and what they expect to gain from the learning event is not possible to obtain until the specific learner group enrols for the program. A questionnaire prior to the commencement of the programme will obtain this information. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 112 4.3.3.2 ULearner ProfileU A learner profile is a narrative description of the target population that sets forth assumptions made about individuals who will likely participate in the learning program (Jerling, 1999:37). Table 4 is a narrative of the learner profile that is most likely to enrol for a learning program on PSO in Africa. Table 3: Learner Profile Prerequisite Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes Other learner-related characteristics Previously learned Knowledge Grade 12 qualification. Must have completed basic training, individual specialised training, sub-unit and unit training, integrated training and a wide array of other general-purpose combat training. Experience Only officers and warrant offices were included in the survey. Very diverse, i.e. includes all racial groupings, both male and female. Respondents are married and single. The average age of the learner group is between the 25 and 50 years. All respondents are from the military, coming from different service components within the SA Army. The majority of members (82%) are from the teeth arms of the SA Army and includes infantry, armour, artillery, air defence artillery, and intelligence and field engineers. Ranks are from Warrant Officer to Lt Col. Approximately 63% are in the rank group Captain to Major and have between 1 and 30 years experience. The majority of members (77%) have between 6 and 15 years experience in the military. Previously learned Skills UManagement CapabilityU. The ability to use various types of weapons and other war fighting equipment. Speak English, Afrikaans and various African languages. 48% of the members that participated in the survey prefer English as the common language. Aptitude General supervision and appraisal. Authorising work of others. Technical advice and guidance. Responsibility towards budget. Responsible for equipment. Responsible for buildings. Previously learned Attitudes All are South Africans coming from diverse backgrounds. The largest percentage, 51%, views the military culture as the most important, whereas 28.9% prefer national culture. Positive towards being a military practitioner. Attitude towards learning is Pragmatist 43%, Activist 23.3%, Theorist 21.1% and Reflector 12%. Attitude Pragmatists, the majority, would prefer practical exercises such as coaching and demonstrations. Activists would like to participate in competitive work and role-play exercises, whereas Theorists would like to solve complex problems and conduct research. Reflectors would rather prefer to work individually, listen to a formal lecture or watch a video. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 113 4.3.4 USUMMARYU This section dealt with the job description of the peacekeeper and target group analysis of the group surveyed. The purpose of the job analysis was to establish generic job performance. Emphasis was placed on a description of the target group and establishing the learner profile. The technique used to collect information for the target group analysis was an attitudinal survey. This resulted in a detailed description of the learner group expected to attend a possible learning program on PSO in Africa. The next section uses the job description to determine training needs and formulate learning outcomes. 4.4 SECTION 3: THE FORMULATION OF OUTCOMES 4.4.1 UINTRODUCTION In the previous sections the situation, job performance and target group was analysed. It is now possible to design the proposed program to be in line with the outcomes stated in the anticipated qualification and unit standards. Aligning the learning program with the qualification or part of the qualification enables the learner to receive credits for the qualification. It will allow the providers of training to align the delivery of their programs in a manner that will facilitate the learning result to transfer into a national qualification or part thereof. The qualification also addresses organisational needs. Alignment is necessary in order to comply with legislation and to train for impact. The generic job description of a peacekeeper, the information from the target group analysis, the learner profile, and the information from the literature review, translates into exit level outcomes and specific outcomes for the proposed Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 114 4.4.2 UEXIT LEVEL OUTCOMES (OVERALL OUTCOMES) On completion of this qualification, the learner will be able to: • Serve on UN peacekeeping missions in various positions such as military observer, liaison officer, and CIMIC officer. • Assess peacekeeping operations from an international perspective in order to apply lessons learnt in the African peacekeeping environment. • Appraise the elements of a geo-political study in order to compile a geopolitical profile of a given country in Africa for peacekeeping purposes. • Collect, analyse, organise and critically assess any information relevant to peacekeeping missions in Africa and to make a sound judgement of any given situation. • Contribute to the CIMIC process by working in close collaboration with local authorities, UN peacekeeping force, and other agencies in ensuring safe access to vulnerable populations of concern. 4.4.3 USPECIFIC OUTCOMESU 4.4.3.1 UServing on a UN Peacekeeping MissionU: • Assess the UN system and the mission environment. • Assess the history of UN peacekeeping operations during the Cold War: 1945 to 1987. • Assess the history of UN peacekeeping operations following the Cold War: 1988 to 1997. • Assess peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia from the Dayton Accord to Kosovo. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 115 • Assess global terrorism. • Assess international humanitarian law and the law of armed conflict. • Assess security for UN peacekeepers. • Assess the principles for the conduct of PSO. • Assess peacekeeping and international conflict resolution. • Appraise UN civilian police: restoring civil order following hostilities. • Assess the conduct of humanitarian relief operations and principles of intervention and management. • Assess operational logistical support of UN peacekeeping missions. • Assess the provision of troops and contingent-owned equipment (COE) and the method for reimbursement. • Assess UN military observers: methods and techniques for serving on a UN observer mission. • Assess mine action: humanitarian impact, technical aspects and global initiatives. • Appraise commanding United Nations peacekeeping operations. 4.4.3.2 UPeacekeeping Operations from an International PerspectiveU: • Assess the strategic background to peace support operations. • Assess the international environment. • Assess the changing nature of peace support operations: A UK perspective. • Estimate planning for peace support operations from a UK perspective. • Value the general approach to peace operations (Netherlands). • Compare the military approach to peace operations from a Netherlands perspective. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 116 • Judge political decision-making and military command and control from a Netherlands perspective. • Appraise support in a multinational framework from a Netherlands perspective. • Value MOOTW operational tasks from a Netherlands perspective. • Assess MOOTW from A USA perspective. • Value the Principles of MOOTW, a USA perspective. • Compare the types of MOOTW from a USA perspective. • Estimate planning for MOOTW, a USA perspective. • Judge hostage survival from a Canadian perspective. • Appraise the operations centre from a Canadian perspective. • Assess negotiation and mediation from a Canadian perspective. • Value media awareness from a Canadian perspective. • Value peace partners from a Canadian perspective. • Assess preventive medicine (Canada). • Assess stress management. 4.4.3.3 UGeo-politics and Security studiesU: • Appraise the concepts influencing Geo-Politics. • Assess the elements of a Geo-Political study. • Argue international politics. • Assess Africa studies. • Compare geo-politics: South Africa and SADC. • Analyse global conflict. • Assess international, regional and national security. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 117 • Support world health issues. • Value security-sector reform (SSR) in developing countries. 4.4.3.4 UPeacekeeping Missions in AfricaU: • Assess case studies in the African environment. • Appraise the context in which PSO’s take place. • Discuss the strategic context and concepts of PSO in Africa. • Appraise the fundamentals, principles and campaigning wrt PSO in the African context. • Assess the tasks and techniques on PSO in the Africa context. • Compare the components in PSO. • Appraise the PSO environment. • Estimate disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration (DDR). • Assess conflict analysis for project management. • Estimate demobilisation and reintegration of ex-combatants in post-war and transition countries. 4.4.3.5 UCivil-Military Coordination (CIMIC)U: • Judge CIMIC relations principles. • Appraise CIMIC in context. • Assess CIMIC practices and processes. • Value the military on humanitarian operations. • Judge CIMIC individual skills. • Set-up CIMIC exercises. • Select options for aid in conflict. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 118 4.4.4 UCURRICULUM DESIGN FRAMEWORKU Outcomes identified above translate into the following possible learning programs: Figure 6: Curriculum frameworkTP 1 PT Source: Own 4.4.5 USUMMARYU This section formulated outcomes for the proposed Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa. The training need identified by configuration with the job description and the literature review translated into exit level outcomes and specific outcomes for the proposed learning programs. The next sections attempts to develop ETD opportunities. TP 1 PT Discussed with the Director: Curriculum Design, Unit for Academic development, Central University of Technology, Free State. Prof G. Mahlomosholo, Bloemfontein, 2006-06-12 Curriculum: National Diploma in PSO in Africa Learning Program 1: UN Peacekeeping (UNITAR POCI) Learning Program 2: International Peacekeeping Learning Program 3: Geo-Politics and Security Studies Learning Program 4: PSO in Africa Learning Program 5: CIMIC A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 119 4.5 SECTION 4: SELECTION AND SEQUENCING OF CONTENTU 4.5.1 UINTRODUCTION In this section a decision is made on the content required to achieve the outcomes and how it can be broken down into smaller steps to assist the learner. All the activities and the content are then sequenced. Content refers to the subject matter, teaching points and learning activities that will enable the learner to perform the various tasks and duties associated with the job of peacekeeping. 4.5.2 USELECTION OF LEARNING CONTENTU Table 4: Selection of Learning Content Sn Outcomes Content UNITAR POCI 1 An introduction to the UN system: orientation for serving on a UN field mission. • The purpose and principles of the UN, its system and institutional framework. • The UN’s roles in the areas of peace, security and development. • The applications of international humanitarian law and human rights. • The application of communication, negotiation and mediation technique. • The UN’s role in maintaining safety and security • The general obligations and responsibilities of the Field Operator. UNITAR POCI 2 The History of United Nations peacekeeping operations during the Cold War: 1945 to 1987. • The history of UN Peacekeeping operations during the Cold War period 1945 to 1987. • The Arab-Israeli Conflict. • The first UN Emergency Force (UNEF). • The UN Operation in the Congo (ONUC)). • The financial crisis of the early 1960's. • West New Guinea (West Iran), Yemen and the Dominican Republic. • The UN Observation Group in Lebanon, India and Pakistan. • The second UN Emergency Force (UNEF II) and the disengagement UN Observer Force (UNDOF). • The UN Peacekeeping force in CYPRUS (UNFICYP). • The UN interim force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). UNITAR POCI 3 The History of United Nations peacekeeping operations following the Cold War: 1988 to 1997. • The end of the Cold War and the Resurgence of UN peacekeeping operations. • The UN Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG). • The Gulf Crisis and the use of force. • Further expansion of UN peacekeeping operations in 1991-1994 and New Challenges. • The performance of UN peacekeeping operations established In 1991-1994: The successful operations. • The performance of UN peacekeeping operations established In 1991-1994: The unsuccessful operations. • The second UN operation in Somalia. • The UN Protection Force in Yugoslavia. • The lessons from the UN operations in Somalia and Bosnia. • The Retrenchment of UN peacekeeping operations since 1994. • The situation of peacekeeping operations and future prospects. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 120 Sn Outcomes Content UNITAR POCI 4 Peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia: from the Dayton accord to Kosovo • The Dayton accord. • UN/NATO operations prior to IFOR • IFOR (Implementation Force) • SFOR (Stabilization Force). • The role of the media. • The Kosovo Crisis: The Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) and the Yugoslav Army (JA). • The Kosovo Crisis: NATO’s role. • The ongoing missions in the former Yugoslavia in 1999. • The UN missions completed in the former Yugoslavia between 1995 and 1998. UNITAR POCI 5 Global terrorism. • The phenomenon of terrorism. • The definitions, elements and anomalies of terrorism. • The jjustifications proclaimed by terrorists. • Other motivations for terrorism: catalysts and negotiations. • The profile of terrorists and their organisations. • Terrorist weapons, resources and equipment. • The types of terrorist acts. • Terrorist tactics and the targets of terrorism. • The victims of terrorism. • Terrorism and the Cold War and terrorism and the media. • Anti-terrorism and counter-terrorism. • Terrorism, the United Nations and the Future. UNITAR POCI 6 International Humanitarian Law and the Law of Armed Conflict. • The general introduction to International Humanitarian Law (IHL): definitions and fields of application. • The protection of victims of International Armed Conflict. • Rules applicable in Non-International Armed Conflicts. • The rules on the Conduct of Hostilities. • The means of Implementing IHL. • Human rights law and International humanitarian law. • The applicability of international humanitarian law to peacekeeping and peaceenforcement forces. • The current role of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in IHL. UNITAR POCI 7 Security for UN Peacekeepers. • Security in general. • Security in UN peacekeeping missions. • Security assets. • Military operational security. • Off duty security. • Security of urban buildings. • Threat recognition and minimising risk. • Treatment of victims. • Mission (field) service; preparations & deployment. • Case studies. UNITAR POCI 8 Principles for the conduct of peace support operations (PSO). • Introduction to United Nations PSOs. • Conceptual approaches to PSOs. • Operational tasks. • The principles of PSOs. • Operational techniques. • Planning for PSOs. • Functions in combat. • Campaign planning. UNITAR POCI 9 Peacekeeping and international conflict resolution. • Overview of the emergence and development of the field of conflict resolution. • The nature of conflict. • The key concepts of conflict resolution • Contemporary conflict dynamics. • Conflict mapping. • Early warning and conflict prevention. • Peacekeeping and conflict resolution in war-zones. • Peace settlements and post-conflict peace building. • Culture, conflict resolution and peacekeeping. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 121 Sn Outcomes Content • Gender issues in peacekeeping. UNITAR POCI 10 UN Civilian Police: Restoring order following hostilities. • The history of CIVPOL operations. • The institutional framework and the universal principles established to restore international peace. • The essential parts of the preparation and conduct of negotiations and mediations. • The staff requirements of a peacekeeping operation and provide guidelines for writing various types of reports. • The UN communications systems and its international mandate. • The specific points regarding the security measures taken during a peacekeeping operation. • The administrative and logistic matters related to CIVPOL observers. • The first aid principles a CIVPOL observer should master and the health precautions that he or she should take before and during his/her service in a UN peacekeeping operation. • Specifics of what is required of a UN driver and the special terrain and weather conditions that he/she may meet in unusual climates. • Guideline organisation for United Nations Civilian Police. • The UN criminal justice standards for peacekeeping police. UNITAR POCI 11 The Conduct of Humanitarian Relief Operations: Principles of Intervention and Management. • The reasons for humanitarian intervention. • The actors in humanitarian relief. • The principles of intervention. • The management of humanitarian emergencies. • The management of health questions in humanitarian intervention. • Logistics: convoys, storage and distribution of aid and the management of shelters. • The administration of food aid. • Water management and sanitation. • Sustainable solutions to humanitarian crisis. • The principles of the “sphere” project and the “code of conduct”. UNITAR POCI 12 Logistical Support to UN Peacekeeping Operations. • The UN Peacekeeping Logistics Concept. • The organisation of the logistics support establishment both in the field and at headquarters. • The financial and budgetary aspects of peacekeeping logistics support. • The life cycle of a UN peace operation. • How peacekeeping field operations work with non-DPKO elements, both UN and non- UN. • The UNs’ duties and responsibilities toward nations contributing troops and equipment to a peacekeeping mission. • The drawdown/liquidation process in a field mission. UNITAR POCI 13 Operational logistical support of UN peacekeeping missions: intermediate logistics course. • Overview of UN operational logistics. • UN operational logistic planning. • Supply concepts, supply planning and supply operations. • Engineering support. • The UN transportation system. • Aviation and air services. • The UN maintenance system. • The UN medical system. • The UN communications system. • The UN postal and courier services. UNITAR POCI 14 The provision of troops and contingent-owned equipment (COE) and the method for reimbursement. • The evolution of troop and contingent-owned equipment reimbursement. • The standard elements of the COE System and Lease Options. • The standards, verification and control on which the COE system is based. • Procedures and regulations governing the preparation and transportation of equipment to and from a mission as a part of a COE agreement. • Procedures for negotiating rates for specialized equipment that cannot be categorised into a generic group. • The responsibilities and procedures related to the loss and damage of equipment and supplies provided under the COE Agreement. • The purpose and calculation of mission factors as part of the COE reimbursement process. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 122 Sn Outcomes Content • The actual rates used to calculate reimbursement for major equipment. • Personnel-based self-sustainment rates. • How COE Agreements are prepared, approved and managed. UNITAR POCI 15 United Nations military observers: methods and techniques for serving on a UN observer mission. • The general outline of the UN system and enumerates specific details regarding some of the main components responsible for peacekeeping. • An in-depth review of the duties of the UN military observer and how he or she should present himself or herself to others. • The essential parts of the preparation and conduct of negotiations and mediations. • The staff requirements of a peacekeeping operation and provide a few guidelines for writing various types of reports. • The UN communications systems and its international mandate. • Some specific points regarding the security measures taken during a peacekeeping operation. • The administrative and logistic matters related to military observers. • The first aid principles a military observer should master and the health precautions that he or she should take before and during the peacekeeping operation. • Specifics of what is required of a UN driver and the special terrain and weather conditions that he/she may meet in unusual climates. UNITAR POCI 16 Mine Action: Humanitarian impact, technical aspects and global initiatives. • The global landmine problem and UN response. • The anti-personnel mine ban treaty. • Landmine and unexploded ordnance (UXO) safety training. • International mine action standards (IMAS). • Victim assistance. • Mine risk education. • Mine information. UNITAR POCI 17 Commanding UN PK operations using methods and techniques for PK on the ground. • The institutional framework of PK operations. • The legal framework for PK operations. • The organisation and command for PK operations. • The organisation of force support within a PK operation. • The background of a PK operation. • The principles of action within a PK operation. • Domains and modes of action of the force. • Mission and operational techniques in PK operations • Specific techniques in PK operations • The rules of engagement in a PK operation. • Recommendations related to safety and security. • Rules of behaviour. INTPSO PSO from an international perspective • The strategic background to PSO. • The international environment. • The changing nature of peace support operations: A UK perspective. • Planning for PSO’s from a UK perspective. • The general approach to peace operations from a Netherlands perspective. • The military approach to peace operations from a Netherlands perspective. • Political decision-making and military command and control from a Netherlands perspective. • Support in a Multinational Framework from a Netherlands perspective. • PK operational tasks from a Netherlands perspective. • MOOTW from a USA perspective. • The principles of MOOTW, a USA perspective. • The types of MOOTW from a USA perspective. • Planning for MOOTW, a USA perspective. • Hostage survival from a Canadian perspective. • The operations centre from a Canadian perspective. • Negotiation and mediation from a Canadian perspective. • Media awareness from a Canadian perspective. • Peace partners from a Canadian perspective. • Preventive medicine (Canada). • Stress management. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 123 Sn Outcomes Content AFRIPSO PK missions in the African context • Case studies in the African environment. • The context in which PSO take place. • The strategic context and concepts of PSO in Africa. • The fundamentals, principles and campaigning wrt PSO in the African context. • The tasks and techniques on PSO in the Africa context. • Components in PSO. • The PSO environment. • Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR). • Conflict analysis for project management. • Demobilisation and reintegration of ex-combatants in post-war and transition countries. GEOPOL Geo-political and security studies • The concepts influencing geo-politics. • The elements of a geo-political study. • International Politics. • Africa Studies. • Geo-politics: South Africa and SADC. • Global conflict. • International, regional and national security. • World health issues. • Security-sector reform in developing countries. CIMIC Civil-military coordination (CIMIC) process. • CIMIC principles. • CIMIC in context. • CIMIC practices and processes. • The military on humanitarian operations. • CIMIC individual skills. • CIMIC exercises. • Options for aid in conflict. 4.5.3 USEQUENCE CONTENTU Somehow you have to organise what you are going to do and when (Wilson, 1995:87). Sequencing is the process by which the content and learning experiences are organised to facilitate the maximum learning in the shortest time (Jerling, 1999:118) and to place content in the specific order in which it will be presented (SANDF COLET, 2003:102). The technique used in this paper is logical reasoning from general to specific (Rothwell and Kazanas, 1998:194), where the learner is first given a general overview of the topic and then introduced to more specific content. The leaner is therefore first presented with the broader picture before the specifics are taught. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 124 Figure 7 depicts a proposed sequence of learning programmes and learning units, using a program map including alternative routes through the program (Wills, 1998:66). Figure 7: Sequence of Learning Programmes Source: Wills 1998:66 Table 5: Sequence of learning units UN PEACEKEEPING (UNITAR POCI PROGRAMS) An introduction to the UN System: Orientation for serving on a UN Field Mission The history of UN peacekeeping operations during the Cold War: 1945 To 1987. The history of UN peacekeeping operations following the Cold War: 1988 To 1997. Peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia: from the Dayton Accord to Kosovo. Global terrorism International humanitarian law and the law of armed conflict Security for UN peacekeepers Principles for the conduct of PSO. PK and international conflict resolution UN Civilian Police: restoring civil order following hostilities The conduct of humanitarian relief operations: principles of intervention and management. Logistical support to UN peacekeeping operations Operational logistical support of UN peacekeeping missions: Intermediate Logistics Course The provision of troops and contingent-owned equipment (COE) and the method for reimbursement UN Military Observers: methods and techniques for serving on a UN observer mission Mine action: humanitarian impact, technical aspects and global initiatives Commanding UN peacekeeping operations: methods and techniques for PK on the ground Introduction Learning programme 1: UN Peacekeeping Learning programme 2: International Peacekeeping Learning programme 3: Geo-politics and Security Learning programme 4: African Peacekeeping Learning programme 5: Civil-Military Coordination Finish A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 125 INTERNATIONAL PEACEKEEPING Strategic background to PSO. The international environment. The changing nature of PSO: A UK Perspective. Planning for PSO from a UK Perspective. A general approach to peace operations (Netherlands). A military approach to peace operations from a Netherlands perspective. Political decision-making and military command and control from a Netherlands perspective Support in a multinational framework from a Netherlands perspective PK operational tasks from a Netherlands perspective An introduction to MOOTW from a USA perspective Principles of MOOTW, a USA perspective Types of MOOTW from a USA perspective Planning for MOOTW, a USA perspective Hostage survival from a Canadian perspective The operations centre from a Canadian perspective Negotiation and mediation from a Canadian perspective Media awareness from a Canadian perspective Peace partners from a Canadian perspective Preventive medicine (Canada) Stress management CIVIL-MILITARY COORDINATION (CIMIC) CIMIC principles CIMIC in context CIMIC practices and processes The military on humanitarian operations CIMIC individual skills CIMIC exercises Options for aid in conflict GEO-POLITICS AND SECURITY STUDIES Concepts influencing geo-politics Elements of a geo-political Study International politics Africa studies Geo-politics : South Africa and SADC Global conflict International, regional and national security World health issues Security-sector reform in developing countries PEACEKEEPING IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT Case studies in the African environment The context in which PSO take place The strategic context and concepts of PSO in Africa The fundamentals, principles and campaigning wrt PSO in the African context The tasks and techniques on PSO in the Africa context Components in PSO The PSO environment Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) Conflict analysis for project management Demobilisation and reintegration of ex-combatants in post-war and transition countries A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 126 4.5.4 USUMMARY This section decided on the content required to achieve the outcomes and how it can be broken down into smaller steps to assist the learner. Content was sequenced to be placed in the specific order in which it will be presented. The next section will decide on the delivery method, training material and activities for the delivery of the learning programmes and curriculum. 4.6 SECTION 5: DETERMINE DELIVERY METHOD, AND LEARNING AIDS 4.6.1 UINTRODUCTIONU Rothwell and Kazanas (1998:210) define instructional strategy as an overall plan governing instructional content. Tracy (1984:244) uses the term strategy to describe all those activities employed in order to achieve a learning outcome, methods of delivery and learning aids. A delivery method is the means by which instruction is offered (Rothwell and Sredi, 1992:10), a basic approach to instruction (Tracy, 1984:245). There is a large number of delivery strategies from which the designer of training can select (Van Dyk et al. 2001:249), cooperative education, competency-based, discovery, problem solving, games, simulation, discussion, drill and practice, tutorial, demonstration, presentation (Newby et al., 2000:91), computer-based, one-toone, self-study, large scale presentation, small group and intact work group and correspondence instruction, for example (SANDF COLET, 2003b:111). One cannot use instructional methods without also using some form of media for communication; printed material, computer software, slides, video, audio and multimedia, for example (Newby et al., 2000:100). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 127 Media, according to Tracy (1984:245) include printed, projected and three dimensional aids and devices. It is not intended to cover the entire range of strategies, but merely to concentrate on the instructional strategies, methods and learning aids that can be used in the selection of an appropriate strategy. 4.6.2 USELECTION OF DELIVERY METHODU In this section the final decision on the most suitable delivery method for the proposed learning programmes is made. In selecting a suitable method of delivery, Van Niekerk (1991b:74) considers the following factors: the nature of the outcome, the target group, content, time and other considerations. 4.6.2.1 UNature of the OutcomeU The nature of the outcome that the learner must achieve is an important consideration in the selection of a delivery method (Van Niekerk, 1991b: 74). According to van Dyk et al. (2001:248) it is the overriding factor in the selection of delivery strategy. For this reason Tracy (1984:246) considers it necessary to examine the learning outcomes to establish the kind of learning involved. The following diagram assisted in the consideration of this factor. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 128 Figure 8: Selection of delivery method according to nature of the outcome Source: Van Niekerk 1991: 75 4.6.2.2 UThe Target GroupU The learner is a further factor to consider in the selection of method (Van Dyk et al, 2001: 248). Aspects such as age, grade level, socio-economic status, previous experience, what specific knowledge and skills they have, learning styles and preferences need to be considered (Newby et al., 2000:118). The influence of the learner group (level of maturity and previous learning experience) is accounted in figure 9. Inspect the Outcome Behavioural Domain? Psychomotor Affective Cognitive • Work Group • Intact Work Group • Individualised • One-to-one Level? Low High Level? High Low Any type of delivery method • Group discussion • Role-play • Case study • Individualised (elearning) • Lesson • Lecture • Demonstration • Computer based Any type of delivery method A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 129 Figure 9: Selection of delivery method according to target group Source: Van Niekerk 1991:76 4.6.2.3 UContentU The ability of the learner to master the content is another factor that has an influence on the selection of the delivery method (van Niekerk, 1991: 74). According to Tracy (1984: 246) the difficulty level of the programme content might influence the selection of a learning strategy. The diagram in Figure 10 indicates this influence. Inspect the Target Group Level of Adulthood? Experience of delivery methods? DEMOCRATIC • Group discussion • Role-play • Case study • Individualised (e-learning) • Distance learning OUTOCRATIC • Lesson • Lecture • Programmed Instruction High Low Yes No A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 130 Figure 10: Selection of delivery method according to content Source: Van Niekerk 1991: 77 4.6.2.4 UTime availability of Learners U The time availability for learning a particular subject or module may dictate the use of certain strategies (Van Dyk et al. 2001:177). Figure 11 assisted in the consideration of a solution. Inspect the Content Learner Intellectual Ability? Low LEARNER-CENTRED • Self-study • Individualised (e-learning) • Distance Learning High Average GROUP-CENTRED • Small group • Intact Work Group • Group discussion • Brain storming • Case study INSTRUCTOR-CENTRED • Lesson • Lecture • Tutorial • Programmed Instruction • One-on-One A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 131 Figure 11: Availability of learners Source: Van Niekerk, 1991:75 4.6.2.5 UOther ConsiderationsU Policies and Procedures It is not possible to plan and undertake ETD in isolation, nor according to one’s own standards. Legislation such as national standards and qualifications, unit standards, OBE and training, and relevant role-players govern outcomes (SANDF COLET, 2003b:67). Consider availability of learners Full time Part time Consider: -Decentralised (on-the-job) -Individualised Consider: -Conventional -Individualised Consider: - Modular - Decentralised with contact sessions Yes Yes No No A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 132 Lecturers and Learners The design and development of a meaningful and cost-effective learning programme require the utilisation of capable personnel who should not only be specialists in the field of peace support operations, but also be knowledgeable in the field of adult learning instructional design (Van Dyk et al. 2001:176). Even if the learning experience requires essentially learner-centred strategies, a person still has to be in attendance to facilitate learning (ibid. p. 249). Facilities The facilities available for training and producing and presenting the instructional and other material are often constraints considered at the beginning of designing a new programme. It may be necessary to utilise external sources for this purpose. Tracy (1984:247) states that each instructional strategy requires the use of specific types of facilities, media and materials. Funds Costs often play a crucial role in many training situations (Van Dyk et al., 2001:249). It is self-evident that the design of a new learning programme will require a considerable amount of funds for the procurements of learning material, the development and production of instructional materials, the possible utilisation of guest speakers during contact sessions and printing costs (SANDF COLET, 2004:6-12). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 133 4.6.2.6 UProcedure for the selection of the delivery methodU. Table 6 gives a factor and conclusion analysis with regard to the selection of delivery method based on figures 8, 9, 10, 11 and other considerations. Table 6: Selection of delivery method Serial No Factor Conclusion 1 UNature of the outcomes: High in the cognitive domain. Low in the affective domain. • In the cognitive and affective domain, it is possible to use any delivery method. • In the psychomotor domain delivery, methods include work groups, intact work group and individualised methods. 2 UThe target groupU: The level of adulthood is high and learners have previous experience of democratic delivery methods Possible delivery methods include: • Group discussion. • Role-play. • Case study. • Individualised (e learning). • Distance education. 3 UContentU: Learner intellect is from average to high Learner-Centred methods such as: • Self-study • Individualised (e-learning) • Distance education Group-centred methods such as: • Small group • Intact Work Group • Group discussion • Brain storming • Case study 4 UTimeU: Learners will be available on a part time basis. • Decentralised approach with contact sessions. 5 Shortlist of Methods • Correspondence Instruction (Distance education) • Individualised (e-learning) • Small group • Intact work group • Case study 6 Final choice Distance education (correspondence instruction) with regular contact sessions and elements of small work group and individualised training. Source: Own 4.6.2.7 USummary The overall educational approach of distance education is co-operative teaching. This concept could be applied in training for soldiers in the SANDF. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 134 The nature of the programme lies in the need to instruct through various distance education delivery modes, i.e. correspondence courses, contact sessions and digital education (Langholtz et al., 2003:6). Correspondence instruction (distance education) programmes are planned based on separation of the learning facilitator and the learners. There is often a wide geographical distance between them. Learning facilitators therefore will not have face-to-face contact with learners on a daily basis (Newby et al. 2000:210-214). The learner has the advantage of working at his/her own pace to acquire knowledge and skills. It involves reading text, undertaking learning activities and sometimes conducting research. The learning material is distributed through the mail or electronically or by means of contact session (Jerling, 1999:150). This does not mean that there is no guidance and support to the learner. The need for communication in order to ensure that the learner is on the right track in achieving the expected learning outcomes remains. Regular contact sessions will be held to assess learners in their progress towards programme outcomes. As the learning facilitator and the learner both share responsibility for learning there is a need to follow a participatory and adult learning approach (SANDF COLET, 2004: 6) and (De Beer and Mostert, 2005:5). Correspondence instruction will base on co-operative education involving small heterogeneous groups of learners working together to learn collaboratively while working towards a common academic goal (Newby et al., 2000:92). In this method, learners apply communication and critical-thinking skills to solve problems or to engage in meaningful work together. Students learn from each other when they work on projects as a team (Slavin, 1990: 52-54). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 135 It is a teaching and learning strategy that integrates the learner’s academic studies with experiential learning. This is done in partnership with the relevant occupational field based on a mixture of explicit (conceptual and factual) knowledge and tacit knowledge gained through experience and simulation, and by going through the actual process that has to be learned (UNISA, 2003:4). Experiential learning may be facilitated by means of practical projects and/or portfolios aimed at guiding the learner to apply the academic knowledge in a practical or simulated work situation (Langholtz et al, 2003:10). Furthermore, an outcomes-based approach is followed that underpinning the systems approach to training. Each component of the programme is designated, monitored, and adjusted to the level and pace of instruction as needed. Each learning outcome is established up front and each learner can turn on or off instruction as needed to achieve the desired outcome (Blank, 1982:6). De Munnik (1997:90) asks the question whether the concepts – outcomes-, standards-, and performance-based education are so different from what institutions have been doing in adult education. The main difference is a shift in emphasis on how the results of the activity are processed. 4.6.3 ULearning Aids Learning aids form part of the communication from the facilitator to the learner and enhances the learning process. Learning aids are the physical learning aids or source of objects, which assist the facilitator in conveying a message or transferring learning (Newby et al., 2000:100). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 136 Learning aids combines material (text, graphics, illustrations, photographs, and facilitation guides) and media (sound, video, and animation). Materials contain messages, while media transmit messages (Jerling, 1999:99). If chosen, and used correctly, all can contribute to learning (Gilley and England, 1989:223). There are four factors to consider when selecting learning aids, namely; nature of the outcomes, learning content, level of the target group and limitations (Van Dyk et al, 2001:265). 4.6.3.1 UNature of outcomes and learning contentU Learning aids must be selected to meet and suit the outcomes and the learning content. The outcomes and learning content of this programme consist out of a combination of cognitive, psychomotor, and affective skills (ibid, p.265). Distance education programmes are not designed for hands-on skills, or for field exercises. It is recognised that certain psychomotor skills can only be taught under close, direct supervision (Langholtz et al., 2003:7). Therefore, learning aids that can be used successfully in all the domains of learning will receive preference. 4.6.3.2 ULevel of target group and learning styles U The content of the learning aids selected were in accordance with the maturity level of the group. Therefore, different learning styles and learning modalities were considered. According to Buckley and Caple (1992:166) knowledge of the learning styles of the target group assist to design programmes that fit in with the main and subordinate styles of learners. The following learning styles namely: activist, pragmatist, reflector and theorist were complied by Honey and Mumford (1986: 25-29). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 137 Table 7: Learning Styles Learning Style Example of learning aid that can be used Activists Activists enjoy the here and now, dominated by immediate experience and tend to thrive on a short-term crisis. They also tend to thrive on the challenge of new experiences. Activists become bored if they have to implement their ideas. The following are questions that they might ask: Personal learning aids Multimedia package • Shall I learn something new? • Will there be a wide variety of different activities? • Will it be appropriate to have fun, have a go, make mistakes or try things out? • Shall I encounter some tough problems or challenges? Learning Style Example of learning aid that can be used Pragmatists Pragmatists are very practical people. They take the first opportunity to experiment with applications. These people will return from a management course, brimming with new ideas that they want to try out in practice. They respond to problems and opportunities as a “challenge”. The following are question that they might ask: Models Slideshows Multimedia package • Will there be opportunities to practice and experiment? • Will there be a lot of practical tips and techniques? • Shall we be addressing real problems, will it result in action plans to address some of my current problems? • Shall we meet experts who know “how to” and can do it themselves? Learning Style Example of learning aid that can be used Reflectors Reflectors prefer to stand back and ponder on experiences and observe it from different perspectives. They collect data and analyse it before coming to any conclusion. They consider all possible angles and implications before making a move so they tend to be cautious. They actually enjoy observing other people and often take a back seat at meetings. Reflectors might ask the following questions: Display Surface Multimedia package Video Computer presentation • Shall I be given enough time to prepare and consider? • Will there be opportunities and facilities to assemble relevant information? • Will there be opportunities to listen to a variety of points of view? • Shall I be under pressure to improvise or make things up to quickly? A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 138 Source: Honey and Mumford, 1986:25 The target group analysis indicated that respondents profiled for this programme are pragmatist - 43%, activist - 23.3% and theorist - 21.1%. Therefore, the learning programme needs to cater for all learning styles especially during contact sessions. It seems that a multimedia media package should satisfy the dominant learning styles. Learning aids will be selected accordingly. In Kolb’s view, sited in a Buckley and Caple (1992:164) acquiring new knowledge, skills and attitudes is a process of confrontation among four modes of experiential learning namely, concrete experience (CE) which involves feeling, reflective observation (RO) involves watching and listening, abstract conceptualisation (AC) involves thinking, and active experimentation (AE) involving doing, making up a cyclic process of learning. To understand leaning modalities two other concepts are important. The first is that each of us is equipped with five senses, namely: sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. These are the only tools we can use to observe the world around us. There is no other way to know what is happening around us. The second concept expands on the Learning Style Example of learning aid that can be used Theorists Theorists are keen on basic assumptions, principles, theories, models and systems thinking. They value rationality and logic. They tend to be analytical and are unhappy with subjective and ambiguous experiences. They like to make things tidy and fit them into rational schemes: They might ask the following questions: Transparencies Printed material Multimedia package Computer presentations • Will there be lots of opportunities to question? • Do the outcomes and programme indicate a clear purpose and structure? • Shall I encounter complex ideas and concepts that will stimulate thinking? • Are the approaches used and the concepts explored sound and valid? • Shall I be with people similar to myself? A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 139 fact that we can only observe the world around us through our senses (SANDF COLET, 2004:16). Although this is the same for all, research has found that there preferences to which senses or combinations of senses are dominant in different individuals. The concept “modality” refers to the route that information takes from the outside world into our human brain. The three modalities are visual, auditory and kinaesthetic (ibid, p.16). A visual learner has visual modality dominance and tends to depend more on sight and less on the other senses. This does not mean that the other senses are ignored, but that they may play a smaller role form time to time. Visual learners focus their sight on the facilitator or what he is doing. They tend to follow the facilitator with their eyes all the time. They use phrases such as “I see what you mean”. Auditory learners depend more on hearing than their other senses. Remember, however, that this does not negate the other senses. They tend to look from side to side during a presentation. This is because they turn to look towards any sound that they hear. Therefore, it is important to keep a check on disruptive noises in and around the learning environment. They also tend to use phrases such as “I hear you” or “this sounds right to me” and they are generally good mimics or storytellers. Kinaesthetic learners favour the sense of touch, while also user their other senses to a lesser extent. How they feel about a subject plays a large role in their learning. They will tend to look down during a presentation as they try to their feelings. They also prefer to sit close together in groups and they like to touch someone as a way of expression. They don’t have a very large personal space and they are uncomfortable with individual methods of learning such as study or certain phases of distance learning. They will use phrases like “this feels right to me” or “are you in touch with the group?” (ibid, p.17). The learning modalities of all learners need to be considered when preparing for a learning A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 140 event. Try to accommodate all learners when determining suitable learning activities and selecting learning aids. 4.6.3.3 USelection matrix for learning aidsU. A learning aids selection matrix can help to choose between the various learning aids. Table 8: Selection matrix for learning aids Personal Learning Aids Transparencies Printed Material Display Surfaces * Models Multi-media Package Computer Presentation Video Slide Show Do you have...? 1. Adequate development time? √ √ √ X √ √ x x 2. Adequate budget for producing this learning aid? √ √ √ X √ √ X X 3. Adequate facilities to develop this learning aid? √ √ X X √ √ X X 4. An appropriate learning environment? X √ X X √ X √ X 5. The right equipment for this learning aid? √ √ X X √ √ X X 6. Opportunities for repeated use? √ √ X X √ √ √ √ 7. Which is the right learning aid/s for my organisation's culture? X √ X √ √ √ √ √ Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N 8. Can this learning aid be updated easily? √ √ X X X √ X X 9. Is it a cognitive, affective or C A C A C A C A C A C A C A C A psychomotor learning event? P P P P P P P P (keep in mind the selected domain of the outcome) Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N 10. Is this learning aid applicable to the target group? X √ √ X √ √ √ X (Where Y = Yes or N = No, the Yes will equal a positive mark) Total Not for assessment purposes 5 7 3 1 8 6 4 2 Source: SANDF COLET, 2004:17 1 choice 2PndP choice 3 rd choice Multi-media Package Printed material Computer presentation A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 141 4.6.3.4 Motivation for the choice of a multi-media Package with printed material and computer presentations as the primary the primary learning aid includes the following: Multi-media packages can be used successfully in cognitive, psychomotor, and affective outcomes. The facilitator can combine a lot of learning aids. Using printed or computer based readers learners are free to stop at any point, and refer. The material can be very portable which enables the learner to study where and when they want. Learning material can be designed in such a way that it allows self-paced instruction. Thus learners can proceed at own pace. Computer presentations will be very useful during contact sessions; Computer presentations can be updated easily when information changes. Computer presentations can be made available to all learners via the internet or compact disc; computer presentations can be used repeatedly and it is not necessary to reproduce them. Facilitation by means of computer is consistent regardless of the facilitator, location or time. Disadvantages include: a multimedia package could be very expensive to develop; it takes a lot of time to set up. Learners must have access to a computer and the internet. (SANDF COLET, 2004:18) 4.6.3.5 USuggested Multi-media PackageU. The following is a proposed package for use during PSO education. • ULearners will receive followingU: • Outcomes. • Learning content in the form of printed material and computer discs. • Learner workbook containing tests related to each objective. • Example of a portfolio of learning (POL). • End-of-course examination (provided with learning programme 1). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 142 • Answer Sheet for end-of-course examination (summative). • Return envelope for end-of-course examination. • Internet support (e-learning). • UFacilitators notesU. These notes deal with the content in the learning package and give guidance to the facilitator concerning the achievement of the outcomes. These notes will refer to available learning aids. 4.6.4 UActivitiesU Activities selected to accompany the learning must enable the learners to meet the outcome of a lesson and must hold the learners interest. It may be necessary to achieve more than one activity for each major lesson, depending on the learning outcome. However, during distance education the learner and the facilitator is separated and activities will be reserved for contact sessions. In this, section a basic idea of activities that could be used to enable the meet the learning outcomes is formulated. These activities will be planned in more detail during the development of programme material (SANDF COLET, 2004:20). Table 9 gives a scheme of activities that could possible be used during these programmes. Table 9: Informal learner activities in outcomes-based assessment Example Description Advantage Group projects A number of learners work on a task together. This might include discussion and group presentation. You can assess learners’ abilities to work as a team and to complete the task competently. Oral presentation Learners present work orally to the learning facilitator/group. Allows learners’ abilities to tell us what they know. Assess both the work completed and the ability to communicate what is learnt. Written assignment This could be an essay or other piece of writing that involves discussion and presentation. Allows for the demonstration of learners’ thinking (cognitive), writing and communication skills. Practical assignment These could be models and posters. Demonstrates how learners understand certain concepts and how they apply it. Peer-assessment Learners give their own opinions of the group’s performance, compared to the outcomes they should achieve. Enhances learner participation. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 143 Portfolio assessment Files or folders that contain samples of the learners’ work done over time. Allows for the assessment of learners over a period of time. Could be used for recognition of prior learning. Self assessment Learners are asked to assess themselves against the given outcomes. Learners develop an understanding of the learning outcomes. Source: SANDF COLET, 2004:20 4.6.5 USUMMARYU Outcomes-based training programmes are implemented widely. To ensure success of distance education programmes, a requirement is adult learners who participate actively in the learning process. The training service providers need to provide active guidance and support. There are various learning theories that must be considered for application to ETD. It is important to implement learner activities that will encourage “whole brain thinkers”. This section proposed a delivery method, decided on training materials and listed some activities that could be used during programme delivery. The next section addresses the issue of assessment. 4.7. SECTION 6: LEARNER ASSESSMENT 4.7.1 UINTRODUCTIONU It is of no use when a learning experience has been established for learners but the learning outcomes were not achieved. It is important to assess the entire situation to determine whether the learning was successful, if learning has taken place and if the outcomes have been achieved (SANDF COLET, 2004:121). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 144 4.7.2 UPURPOSE OF ASSESSMENTU Reid, Barrington and Kennedy (1992:287) add that assessment provides feedback to the facilitator about his/her performance, and indicates the extent to which learning outcomes have been achieved and whether any further training need is to be addressed. 4.7.3 UTYPES OF ASSESSMENT U The purposes of assessment are reflected in the different types of assessment (Jerling, 1999:220). The following types of learner assessment are considered for this qualification: Diagnostic assessment is used prior to a learning programme. A pre-test will be taken during the contact session at the beginning of a learning programme. Information gained this way helps the facilitator and assessor to determine the learner’s pre-knowledge, pre-skills and pre-attitudes (Newby et al., 2000:222). The completion of this assignment is an entry requirement for the programme, and will be administered on day one of the first contact session (SANDF COLET, 2006b:1). It will also assist in the process of recognition of prior learning (Van der Spuy, Cronje and Breytenbach, 2005:3) and (Jerling, 1999:220). Formative assessment takes place during the learning process, serving the following purposes: determine what learners have learned to that point, supply feedback as the learning process occurs, identify what type of additional practice may be needed and refocus learner’s attention (Newby et al., 2000:222). Formative assessment thus aims to help learners grow and progress. It is therefore developmental in nature, and allows for feedback, remedial activities as A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 145 well as additional support (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:3). Assessment will include exercises and self-assessment activities while working through the interactive learning material. All exercises and self assessment activities are completed in writing (end-of-lesson questions in workbook) and this information is placed in the portfolio of evidence. Feedback is provided on the learner’s progress and he/she has the opportunity to improve and to develop. The learner is provided with the opportunity (during contact sessions) to carry out various activities related to the learning material. The purpose is to develop in preparation for final assessment that will take place towards the end during a contact session. Summative assessment refers to the type of assessment that takes place at the end of a learning programme (Goodwin-Davey, 2004:6). Judgement is made about achievement. It is the final measure of what was learnt (Newby et al., 2000:222). Summative assessments is carried out using written examinations, written assignments, syndicate tasks, role plays and presentations during contact sessions (SANDF COLET, 2003b:122). A learner deem competent or not yet competent because of their assessment against the standard set (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:3). In OBET, emphasis place on continuous assessment, meaning that assessment is an ongoing process. Simply stated, assessment should take place throughout a period of learning (SANDF COLET, 2004b:14). Outcomesbased assessment is associated with criterion-referenced where assessment is done against the standard that is stated in terms of the specified outcomes and the accompanying laid down assessment criteria (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:3) and (Jerling, 1999:219). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 146 4.7.4 UASSESSMENT METHODSU SAQA (2001:27) describe different assessment methods in table 10. Table 10: Assessment methods Assessment method Advantages Disadvantages Role-play Assessment of attitudes and interpersonal skills through roleplay An excellent way to get in focus with the affective (feelings) domains of learning. If well managed and structured, it can be satisfying and enjoyable for participants. Some participants may feel intimidated by having to act out a role-play. A considerable number of sources (such as time for preparation and play) may be required. The evidence obtained might be unpredictable. Written case study A detailed description of a specific situation that may be genuine or fictional, for example an emergency situation in the workplace that a learner needs to handle according to policies and guidelines. A good method for providing evidence of a learner’s knowledge on procedures, as well as his/her ability to use higher cognitive thinking skills (such as problem-solving and decision-making). A good method to assess all three types of competence (foundational, practical and reflexive). Learners may react differently in the real-life situation if the case study was fictional. It is time-consuming to design an effective case study. The assessor might not get good evidence if the case study was not properly planned, resulting into a pleasant pastime without any training value. Written test/examination A selection of written/typed questions, requiring a written response. Useful to provide evidence on the cognitive domain of learning. The assessment process is standardised. All learners write the same test or examination. Not suitable for assessing the affective (feelings) and psychomotor (skills) domains of learning. A great amount of time and effort is required to draw up proper questions and a memorandum (model answer) for a test or examination. Group project A project is assigned to a group of learners who work together to achieve the specific outcomes. This might involve oral presentation and discussion. The learners’ abilities to work as a team and to complete the task competently are assessed. It allows for thorough research and investigation. Higher cognitive thinking skills of learners are stimulated (such as critical and creative thinking). It may be difficult to determine whether it is the learner’s own work (authenticity). Not all group members make equal contributions. It is difficult to assess individuals’ work. Written assignment This could be a written assignment that could be an essay or other piece of writing that involves discussion and presentation. It could also be a practical assignment that involves the making of posters and models. It may be assigned to a group of learners or to individuals. It allows for thorough research and investigation. Higher cognitive thinking skills of learners are stimulated (such as critical and creative thinking). Learners read the material assigned as it appears in the original writing, and do not receive it secondhand. The assessor must find ways to ensure that the assignment is the learner’s own work. The assessor may need more evidence (practical demonstration). Assignment assessment is very time-consuming. Self assessment A learner assesses his/her own level of competence. The learner develops a better understanding of the outcomes that have to be achieved. It is a valuable way to find out what a learner thinks about his/her level of performance. It may not be an accurate form of assessment. Some learners may underestimate their level of competencies while others have unrealistically high opinions of their abilities. Peer assessment Learners give their own opinions of the groups’ performance, compared to the outcomes they should achieve. Learner participation is enhanced. It confirms competence applied in the work environment. Useful for group work to assess competencies such as “working in a team.” It may not be a true reflection of the learner’s competence due to factors such as favouritism or prejudice. The learner might feel threatened by the situation. Portfolio of evidence (A file or folder that contains samples of the learner’s work done over time. It allows for the assessment of a learner over a period. It could be use for recognition of prior learning. It may not be an accurate form of assessment. The assessor must find ways to ensure that the assignment is the learner’s own work. The assessor may need more evidence (practical demonstration) and clarification. Source: AWL 2001:6-14 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 147 4.7.5 UMANAGEMENT OF ASSESSMENT U Part of the ETD quality assurance, is the management of evaluation and assessment. One of the elements in the process is the management of assessment which involves (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:4): • The preparatory phase for planning and designing of the assessment. • The learner assessment process: 􀂃 Demonstrate understanding of outcomes-based assessment; 􀂃 Prepare for assessments; 􀂃 Conduct assessments; 􀂃 Provide feedback on assessment, and 􀂃 Review assessments. • Re-assessment procedure. • Appeal procedure. • Moderation process. • Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) process. • Withdrawal and suspension process. 4.7.5.1 URe-assessment U Rules regarding re-assessment are stated in the curriculum and make provision for the following (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:5): • The minimum competent level or grading that permits the learner to be reassessed. The actions to be taken when a learner does not achieve the prescribed minimum competence level/grading during a re-assessment. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 148 • The learner, who fails to be present for the scheduled assessment without a valid reason, forfeits this re-assessment opportunity, which implies a not competent result. The validity shall be determined by a moderating committee. • Re-assessment should take place in the same situation or context and under the same conditions as the initial assessment. The same method and assessment instrument may be used, but the task and the material should be changed. However, re-assessment should be of the same complexity and level as the previous assessments. • The learning programme, in which the learner has done a re-assessment, is to be indicated as a re-assessment on all official documents (individual and course reports). • Only one re-assessment per unsuccessful assessment is permitted. 4.7.5.2 USupplementary/Special assessment U A learner must be allowed to do a supplementary assessment when he or she was unable to undertake a scheduled summative assessment. This assessment is only valid in the following circumstances: personal Illness and serious Illness or death of a close family member. Before being granted a supplementary assessment, the validity of the circumstances must be investigated and authorised. The supplementary assessment date will be set by the ETDP or registered assessor for this specific assessment. Should a learner be unsuccessful during this supplementary assessment he/she shall be entitled to a re-assessment (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:5). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 149 4.7.5.3 URepetition of a learning program U The career manager and governing body shall decide if and when a learner may repeat a learning program after a learner has been found guilty of dishonesty by a court of law. If a learner is repeatedly unsuccessful in his/her attempts to demonstrate competence, and the provider has given the learner the necessary support, the learner shall no longer have the opportunity to attend the specific learning program. The maximum opportunities for repeating a learning program are stated in the curriculum. The Provider must submit a request to the governing body with the view to get authorization for the exclusion of the learner from further enrolment of the learning program. The provider shall notify the learner’s service or division of the circumstances and recommend alternative ETD or career path for the particular learner (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:5). 4.7.5.4 UAppeal ProcedureU An appeal procedure ensures that learners may appeal against an assessment decision. The appeal must be towards the assessor who did the assessment, and if unsatisfied, to the internal moderator followed by the external moderator, and in the final instance, to the ETQA. Every Provider shall comply with the prescribed internal DOD ETD appeal procedure, up to the stage where the appeal must be forwarded to the external moderator. For further appeals the Providers must comply with the appeal procedure of the specific ETQA they are accredited with. Providers and learners shall attempt to resolve matters internally before seeking recourse with the relevant ETQA. A Governing Body/s (board structure) will act as the controlling body for ETD related matters of the providers, A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 150 within the framework of SAQA regulations prescripts (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:6). 4.7.5.5 UModerationU Internal moderation of assessment occurs at the Providers and external moderation is the responsibility of the ETQAs. Providers must ensure that specific individuals, who are experienced assessors, manage the internal moderation process. The minimum requirement that internal moderators must comply with is the SAQA ID 115759 “conduct moderation of outcomes-based assessment” or an ETD qualification registered on the NQF, which includes this unit standard. This implies that the individual must have completed the: “conduct outcomes-based assessment” and the “design and develop outcomes-based assessment” unit standard. Moderators must register with the appropriate ETQA of the specific field in which the individual will be moderating (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:6). 4.7.5.6 URecognition of Prior Learning (RPL)U RPL is defined in the SAQA Act in terms National Standards Bodies (NSB) (Government Gazette, No 18787 of 28 March 1998),: RPL means the comparison of the previous learning and experience of a learner obtained against the learning outcomes required for a specific qualification, and the acceptance for purposes of qualification of that which meets the requirements. The principle of RPL is broadly stated as the giving of credit to what learners already know and can do, regardless of whether this learning was achieved formally or informally. The process of recognition of prior achievements is about: Identifying what the learner knows and can do and matching the learner’s skill, knowledge and A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 151 experience to specific unit standards and the associated criteria, assessing the learner against the standards, crediting the learner for skills, knowledge and experience built up through formal/informal/non-formal learning that occurred in the past. There is no fundamental difference in the assessment of previously acquired skills and knowledge and the assessment in current learning program. The learner seeking credits still has to comply with all the requirements stated in the unit standard. The only difference is that the learner will not need to go through a formal learning program. Awarding a credential is not dependent on the time spent in a learning program, but on the learner’s readiness to demonstrate competence. A learner that feels ready can present him/herself for assessment and/or submit the necessary evidence as required by the learning outcomes and the assessment criteria, as stated in the registered unit standard. It is furthermore the learner’s responsibility to provide evidence of competence in accordance with the relevant outcomes. Although RPL is a “special assessment” it must be incorporated in the existing assessment processes (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:6-7) and (Jerling, 1999:219). 4.7.5.7 UWithdrawal, Suspension and Exclusion from a Learning Program U A learner can be withdrawn/suspended or excluded from a learning program, for the following reasons (Van der Spuy et al., 2005:8): A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 152 UReasons for withdrawalU. Learners may be withdrawn from a learning program for the following reasons: • Humanitarian reasons/Learner’s own request. • Medical reasons. • Operational requirements. • Insufficient attendance on learning program (residential) UReasons for suspension/exclusionU. Learners may be suspended or excluded from a learning program for the following reasons: • Below standard achievement/not reaching set outcomes. The following has reference: If a learner is repeatedly unsuccessful in his/her attempts to demonstrate competence, and the provider has given the learner the necessary support, the learner may be suspended from the specific learning program. The fact that a learner did not succeed is not negotiable. The learner may be suspended/excluded from further enrolment, for a specific period determined by the governing body. • Unacceptable or dishonest behaviour include but is not limited to, the following conduct: 􀂃 Copying the assignments of previous learners and copied answers from another learner during an assessment: A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 153 􀂃 Possessing and/or use of unauthorised reference material of any nature whatsoever, during an assessment: 􀂃 Communicating with other learner(s) during an individualised assessment. 􀂃 Assisting a fellow learner during an assessment by providing him/her with answers to the assessment questions, in any manner whatsoever. 􀂃 Acting in contravention of instructions regarding the completion of individual tasks, in circumstances where such contravention amounts to dishonesty, as determined by the ETDP, assessment rules, for example. • Unacceptable or improper behaviour or misconduct includes but is not limited to the following conduct: 􀂃 Absences without official leave (AWOL). 􀂃 Under the influence of alcohol or narcotic drugs. 􀂃 Aggressive behaviour, intimidation, assault or damage to property. 􀂃 Use of foul language or insubordination. 􀂃 Scandalous behaviour or conduct unbecoming DOD personnel. 4.7.6 UCONCLUSION Assessment should be conducted in accordance with an assessment plan. It is a participatory approach and the assessor is there to help the learner to produce evidence that proves that he/she is competent. Proper records should be kept. This forms part of quality assurance. Feedback should be provided to the learner regarding his/her competence level. The learner has the right to be re-assessed or to appeal against the assessment result. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 154 4.8 SECTION 7: PROGRAMME EVALUATION 4.8.1 UINTRODUCTIONU According to Sheal (1994:183), assessment has three main purposes namely, to improve ETD programmes, to assess the value of ETD to the learners and to assess the value of ETD to the organisation. These three purposes of evaluation are reflected in the different types of evaluation; formative and summative, and different levels of evaluation; reaction, behaviour, learning and results (Jerling, 1999:220). According to Rothwell and Stredi (1992:144) evaluation is a process of appraising something carefully to determine its value. It involves judging the worth of planned learning experiences. Goldstein (quoted in Bramley, 1991:87) defines evaluation as the systematic collection of descriptive and judgemental information necessary to make effective decisions related to the selection, adoption, value and modification of various instructional activities. The purpose of this section is to give an indication of how programme evaluation will be done. 4.8.2 UFORMATIVE EVALUATIONU Formative evaluation involves continuous evaluation during the development of ETD (Sheal, 1994:184). The purpose of this type of evaluation is to improve the quality of ETD programmes (Jerling, 1999:219). Formative evaluation is concerned with decisions taken while the ETD design is being developed and the learning materials being produced (Van Dyk et al., 1992:213). The formative evaluation of the design report and curriculum will entail a reputability study. This involves the evaluation of the research promoter Dr K. de Beer and second promoter (external) Prof Harvey Langholtz. Each expert will receive a draft copy A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 155 of the design report, which includes the contents of the proposed curriculum. After the experts have had an opportunity to review and assess the material, the researcher will correct shortfalls and present then with a final copy. The experts voice their opinion on the learning program contents and the method of implementation (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995:50). These comments and criticisms form the base of the formative evaluation. 8.3 USUMMATIVE EVALUATION Summative evaluation takes place after ETD programme has been completed (Jerling, 1999:220). Perhaps the best-known methodology is Kirkpatrick's four level evaluation models of reaction, learning, performance, and impact (Clark, 2000). The figure below shows how the evaluation process fits together. Figure 12: Levels of Training Evaluation Source: Clark (2000) - HTUhttp://www.nwlink.comUTH. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 156 4.8.3.1 ULevel One - ReactionU Evaluating reaction can be seen as the same as measuring customer satisfaction. If ETD is to be effective, it is important that learners react favourably to it. Otherwise they will not be motivated to learn. They will also tell others of their reactions, and this could influence decisions to reduce or eliminate the programme (Kirkpatrick, 1994:27). This level is often measured with attitude questionnaires that are passed out after most training classes. This level measures one thing: the learner's perception (reaction) of the learning program. Learners are keenly aware of what they need to know to accomplish a task. If the training program fails to satisfy their needs, a determination should be made as to whether it's the fault of the program design or delivery. This level is not indicative of the training's performance potential as it does not measure what new skills the learners have acquired or what they have learned that will transfer back to the working environment. This has caused some evaluators to down play its value. However, the interest, attention and motivation of the participants are critical to the success of any training program. People learn better, when they react positively to the learning environment. When the learning package is first presented, the learner has to make a decision as to whether he or she will pay attention to it. If the goal or task is judged as important and achievable, then the learner is normally motivated to engage in it (Markus and Ruvulo, 1990:211-241). 4.8.3.2 ULevel Two - LearningU It is important to measure learning because no change in behaviour (level three) can take place if learning has not occurred (Kirkpatrick, 1994:43). This is the extent to which participants change attitudes, improve knowledge, and increase A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 157 skill as a result of attending the program. It addresses the question: did the participants learn anything? The learning evaluations require post-testing to ascertain what skills were learned during the training. In addition, the posttesting is only valid when combined with pre-testing, to differentiate between what learners already knew prior to training and what they actually learned during the learning program. Measuring the learning that takes place in a training program is important in order to validate the learning objectives. Evaluating the learning that has taken place typically focuses on such questions as: What knowledge was acquired? What skills were developed or enhanced? What attitudes were changed? Learner assessments are created to allow a judgment to be made about the learner's capability for performance. There are two parts to this process: the gathering of information or evidence (testing the learner) and the judging of the information (what does the data represent?). This assessment should not be confused with evaluation. Assessment is about the progress and achievements of the individual learners, while evaluation is about the learning program as a whole (Tovey, 1997:88). Evaluation in this process comes through the learner assessment that was built in the design phase. The assessment instrument normally has more benefits to the designer than to the learner because for the designer, the building of the assessment helps to define what the learning must produce. For the learner, assessments are statistical instruments that normally poorly correlate with the realities of performance on the job and they rate learners low on the "assumed" correlatives of the job requirements. Thus, the next level is the preferred method of assuring that the learning transfers to the job, but sadly, it is quite rarely performed (Gilbert, 1998:93). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 158 4.8.3.3 ULevel Three - Performance (behaviour) In Kirkpatrick's original four-levels of evaluation, he names this level "behaviour." However, behaviour is the action that is performed, while the final results of the behaviour are the performance. Gilbert (1998:94) said that performance has two aspects - behaviour being the means and its consequence being the end. If only worried about the behavioural aspect, then this could be done in the training environment. However, the consequence of the behaviour (performance) is what is important after - can the learner now perform in the working environment? This evaluation involves testing the students capabilities to perform learned skills while on the job, rather than in the classroom. Level three evaluations can be performed formally (testing) or informally (observation). It determines if the correct performance is now occurring by answering the question, "Do people use their newly acquired learning’s on the job?" It is important to measure performance because the primary purpose of training is to improve results by having the students learn new skills and knowledge and then actually applying them to the job. Learning new skills and knowledge is no good to an organization unless the participants actually use them in their work activities. Since level three measurements must take place after the learners have returned to their jobs, the actual level three measurements will typically involve someone closely involved with the learner, such as a supervisor. Although it takes, a greater effort to collect this data than it does to collect data during training, its value is important to the training department, organization as the data provides insight into the transfer of learning from the classroom to the work environment, and the barriers encountered when attempting to implement the new techniques learned in the program. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 159 4.8.3.4 ULevel Four - ResultsU These results measure the training program's effectiveness, that is, "what impact has the training achieved?" These impacts can include such items as monetary, efficiency, moral, and teamwork. While it is often difficult to isolate the results of a training program, it is usually possible to link training contributions to organizational improvements. Collecting, organizing and analyzing level four information can be difficult, time-consuming and more costly than the other three levels, but the results are often quite worthwhile when viewed in the full context of its value to the organization. Moving from level one to level four, the evaluation process becomes more difficult and time-consuming; however, it provides information that is of increasingly significant value. Perhaps the most frequently type of measurement is level one because it is the easiest to measure. However, it provides the least valuable data. Measuring results that affect the organization is considerably more difficult, thus it is conducted less frequently, yet it yields the most valuable information. Each evaluation level should be used to provide a cross set of data for measuring training program. The first three-levels of Kirkpatrick's evaluation - reaction, learning, and performance are largely "soft" measurements, however decision-makers who approve such training programs, prefer results (returns or affects). That does not mean the first three are useless, indeed, their use is in tracking problems within the learning package: • Reaction informs how relevant the training is to the work the learners perform (it measures how well the training requirement analysis processes worked). • Learning informs to the degree of relevance that the training package worked to transfer KSAs from the training material to the learners (it measures how well the design and development processes worked). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 160 • The performance level informs of the degree that the learning can actually be applied to the learner's job (it measures how well the performance analysis process worked). • Impact informs of the "return" the organization receives from the training. Decision-makers prefer this harder "result," although not necessarily in dollars and cents. A recent study of financial and information technology executives found that they consider both hard and soft "returns" when it comes to customer-centric technologies, but give more weight to non-financial metrics (soft), such as customer satisfaction and loyalty, for example (Hayes, 2003:18). Note the difference in "information" and "returns." That is, the first three-levels give “information" for improving the learning package. While the fourth-level gives “impacts." A hard result is generally given in rand and cents, while soft results are more informational in nature, but instead of evaluating how well the training worked, it evaluates the impact that training has upon the organization. In this case, however, there is an exception, as the target organisational vision is to provide learning opportunities. This final measurement of the learning program might be met with a more balanced approach or a "balanced scorecard" (Kaplan and Norton, 2001 in Clark, 2000), which looks at the impact or return from four perspectives: • Financial: A measurement, such as a Return on Investment (ROI), that shows a monetary return, or the impact itself, such as how the output is affected. Financial can be either soft or hard results. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 161 • Customer: Improving an area in which the organization differentiates itself from competitors to attract, retain, and deepen relationships with its targeted customers. • Internal: Achieve excellence by improving such processes as supply-chain management, production process, or support process. • Innovation and Learning: Ensuring the learning package supports a climate for organizational change, innovation, and the growth of individuals. 4.8.4 USUMMARY U In this section the evaluation of the proposed learning program was discussed. Two types of evaluation can be distinguished, namely formative and summative evaluation. Formative evaluation involves a continuous process in which the programme is evaluated while it is being developed. A reputability study will be carried out to finalise the formative evaluation. Summative evaluation is done after the ETD programme has been conducted, and its purpose is to evaluate the effectiveness of the programme. A detail assessment plan has yet to be developed. Four levels of summative evaluation can be distinguished, namely reaction, learning, performance and results. Assessment should not be confused with evaluation. Assessment is about the progress and achievements of the individual learners, while evaluation is about the learning program as a whole 4.9 CONLUSION This chapter is an account of the results of the study according to the research objectives stated. The survey results indicate that there is training gap, and confirm that there is a need amongst SA Army officers in the SANDF to participate in a tertiary program on PSO in Africa. It also answers the question A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 162 on the best method to design such learning program. Section 2 presented a job description and target group analysis. Section 3 aligned the generic job requirement of a peacekeeper with the training needs. Sections 4, 5, 6, and 7 described the development of ETD opportunities with reference to the development, delivery and assessment of ETD opportunities. The next chapter reflects findings and recommendations concerning a programme strategy and possible curriculum content. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 163 CHAPTER 5 - FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 INTRODUCTION The purpose of this chapter is to present a summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations with due consideration of the objectives of the study. It consists of the observations and conclusions made from the study, reveals the possible limitations of the study and makes recommendations on a programme strategy and curriculum. The chapter concludes with recommendations regarding further research and larger relevance and value of the study. 5.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS Findings indicate that there is a problem with regard to training on PSO in Africa. The study also concludes that there is a need for a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa. If the RSA wants to play a leading role on an economic and politically unstable continent, it must have a focussed and functional defence force in order to negotiate from a position of strength. The near future continues to hold a high demographic risk of civil conflict in Africa. South Africa remains a state in transition and will for some time to come. The international community expects South Africa to become more involved in peacekeeping missions. The focus of main effort of the SANDF should therefore be on PSO in Africa. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 164 The SANDF, however, has a limited capacity to deploy troops in PSO over long periods. It has neither the logistical, nor the personnel capacity to do so. The defence budget remains under pressure to such an extent that South African military potency is slipping and will drop further if the lack of political will continues to hamper the effectiveness of the SANDF. Most important is that the SANDF needs to have a strong civilian-military coordination mindset, as there is prior deployment of other organisations in the conflict region. The focus of the SANDF force from the onset should therefore be one of development in cooperation with other stakeholder organisations. Unfortunately, the country faces many challenges that have an influence on the productivity and its competitiveness in the global market. This is mainly due to low levels of education and training. Knowledge is power that determines the competitiveness of a country. It is clear that there is a demand for ETD in the SANDF which will most likely increase. The South African Department of Defence (DOD) has to align the ETD of all its members with international and national trends. The NQF is South Africa’s answer to global and national demands for a change in the approach to ETD. There is a huge transformation in the field of ETD, with the NQF forming the centre of gravity. Training peacekeepers via distance education is an inexpensive means for Institutions of Higher Learning to get involved and contribute. This could be a key step to assist in the development of modern, professional armed forces. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 165 A Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa could provide training and education for military practitioners from the SANDF and SADC countries, diplomats, civilian employees of ministries of defence, foreign affairs, and employees of NGOs, scholars and serious citizens in order to improve their ability to participate in multinational peace support and humanitarian operations. 5.3 LIMITATIONS The results of this research are interpreted with recognition of certain limitations. These limitations link with sources of error mentioned in Chapter 3 of the study. The generalisation of the results is limited to the degree to which other populations resemble the one studied. It is possible that a sample of soldiers will yield unique results in that warfare is a male dominated profession, has mandatory training and experiences higher turnover rates than many other professions. The sample was also limited to the units of the SA Army (School of Air Defence Artillery, School of Armour, SA Army College, Army Support Base Kimberley, 10 Anti-aircraft Regiment). In addition, as respondents were full-time soldiers, employed at full time force units, the findings may not apply to soldiers in other settings such as the reserve or part-time forces. The survey nature of the study introduces limitations that are inherent in the research design, including the possible ambiguity of individual questions, answers that not clarified memory lapses, variation in individual motivation and variations in the knowledge of the respondents. This is noted as being especially relevant for studies of the perceptions of work-related practices. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 166 5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS The consideration, development and adoption of these recommendations will provide the different stakeholders an avenue for the effective participation of Institutions of Higher Learning in the peace drive in Africa by presenting a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa: The non-availability of a Model of a Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa within Institutions of Higher Learning makes this a feasible project. Partnerships for co-operation should be formed with the Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT); the University of South Africa (UNISA); The SA National Defence Force College of Educational Technology (COLET); The Northern Cape Institute for Higher Learning (NIHE), the South African National War College (SANWC) and the Institute for Security Studies (ISS) in order to establish a sound knowledge base on PSO in Africa. Marketing strategy should be to aggressively enhance, promote and support the fact that the envisaged product will be unique, due to the fact that no Institution of Higher Learning in South Africa currently has a similar programme based on scientific instructional design. Sales strategy need to consist out of making the product available at a competitive price in order to capture market share before the entrance of other competitors especially from the international arena. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 167 Profit goals could be established later when the Institute of Higher Learning has a consistent sales volume and customer base. Financial projections indicate that the exit of investment will be achievable within one year. The SANDF could subscribe to the program in order to give its officers a higher learning qualification (tertiary) in an applicable field. The SANDF could subscribe to the program in order equip its members with non-combat skills that includes a wide variety of PSO subjects. The learning program would be of great assistance to educate the SA community and humanitarian aid organisations with non-combat skills on PSO. The Institute of Security Studies (ISS) could become an important role player in the compilation of instructional content focussed on the African continent. The ISS could form a partnership with the other mentioned role players to further, and enhance a culture of peace in the South African community. Offering the program to other African countries in line with NEPAD initiatives could enhance capacity building. The programme strategy provides an overview of the learning programme, its components and the context within which it is presented. It acts as a guide to the ETD practitioner and the learner on the learning programme, standards and expectations. The programme strategy document forms part of the evidence of learning programme alignment to the Outcomes Based format. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 168 The benefits of a programme strategy are that it provides details of the strategy and approach to be used for the learning programmes, informs readers about the purpose and intent of the learning programme, is a record for audit purposes, is used as a discussion document to establish agreement between the designer and the stakeholders on what the programme must achieve and broadly how it is going to be achieved and serves as the basis for developing learning programmes in that it directs efforts. 5.4.1 PROGRAMME OVERVIEW 5.4.1.1 Programme Name A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa. 5.4.1.2 Programme Description This learning programme is designed for SANDF peacekeepers. Other enrolments could include diplomats, enlisted personnel, and civilian employees of ministries of defence, foreign affairs, and employees of NGOs, scholars, as well as citizens who are responsible to take part in PSO’s in Africa. Through this learning programme peacekeepers will develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes required to become unbiased diplomats under the UN/AU flag for peacekeeping operations. It will satisfy the need for tertiary education, improved knowledge and changed attitudes towards peace missions in Africa. The programme will strive to meet the needs of the learners and their organisations, society and the economy. The wide range of skills acquired contributes to the transportability of the qualification into the private sector. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 169 This task will be accomplished using an interactive multimedia learning program that containing the following topics: UN peacekeeping, International peacekeeping, geo-politics and security studies, peacekeeping on the African continent, and Civil-Military Coordination. 5.4.1.3 Purpose of Programme Practitioners who have achieved this qualification will have achieved a generic competence in the management of PSO in Africa. They will be capable of making significant contributions to resolve the persistent and widespread problems of political instability, revolution and violence on the African continent through academic selection, experiential training support and lifelong learning commitments to peacekeeping instruction. Within the overall educational philosophy of a combination of decentralised education and co-operative training, the nature of the proposed project is to fulfil the urgent need to change South African soldiers into unbiased diplomats under the UN/AU flags for peacekeeping operations. For those who have been in the workplace for a long period, this qualification can be used in the recognition of prior learning to assess and recognise workplace skills acquired without the benefit of formal education and training. For the new entrant, this qualification describes the learning outcomes required to effectively participate in a structured workplace. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 170 For education and training providers, this qualification provides guidance for the development of appropriate learning programmes and assessment documentation. This qualification enables the employer to identify the skills gaps through a quality assurance process and management structure. 5.4.1.4 Access to the Qualification Learners should be in possession of a grade 12 or equivalent qualification. There are no other restrictions placed on learners which may prevent them from gaining access to this qualification. Some of the unit standards can be achieved through short courses in the private sector, for example, the short courses presented by UNITAR POCI (these courses are not yet available through institutions of higher learning in the RSA). Some of the unit standards can be achieved through training courses in the SANDF. In such cases recognition of prior learning will take place on entry into the qualification. 5.4.1.5 Learning assumed to be in place The credit calculation is based on the assumption that practitioners have no previous peacekeeping experience when starting to learn towards this qualification. A person applying to enter this learning programme is required to have extensive professional training in his/her own field of expertise. Learners must have basic computer literacy and must be able to prepare and present a power point presentation. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 171 5.4.1.6 Articulation Possibilities The following diagram shows the location of this qualification in terms of other qualifications with peacekeeping as focus. Degree in Peacekeeping L7 (Does not exist) National Diploma in Peacekeeping L6 Certificate in Peacekeeping (UNITAR POCI courses L6) SANDF courses (Credits L4 and L5) Learners can only move vertically by using this qualification as a basis for further academic qualification with peacekeeping as a focus at Institutions of Higher Learning. Currently no higher education qualifications in the field of peacekeeping exist at any South African Institution of Higher Learning. Table 11: Articulation with other programs No Program 1 1.1 Programme Title UN Peacekeeping – UNITAR POCI 1.2 Type of Articulation Certificate 1.3 Overall outcomes Articulating National Higher Diploma 1.4 Provider UNITAR POCI No Program 2 1.1 Programme Title International Peacekeeping 1.2 Type of Articulation Credits 1.3 Overall outcomes Articulating National Higher Diploma 1.4 Provider No Programme 3 1.1 Programme Title Geo-politics and Security Studies 1.2 Type of Articulation Credits 1.3 Overall outcomes Articulating National Higher Diploma 1.4 Provider A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 172 No Programme 4 1.1 Programme Title Peacekeeping in African Context 1.2 Type of Articulation Credits 1.3 Overall outcomes Articulating National Higher Diploma 1.4 Provider No Programme 5 1.1 Programme Title Civil-Military Coordination 1.2 Type of Articulation Credits 1.3 Overall outcomes Articulating National Higher Diploma 1.4 Provider 5.4.1.7 Structure of the Qualification (Table 12) The rationale and purpose provides, among other things, a broad description of what holders of the qualification can do. Qualification Rationale and Purpose The qualification is further defined by means of a number of Exit Level Outcomes. These ELOs provide a means for candidates to exit the qualification with recognition for clusters of competencies, even if they do not achieve the whole qualification. The ELOs also provide a means to organise the unit standards into coherent clusters, thus facilitating integrated assessment. ELO 1 ELO 2 ELO 3 etc Associated unit standards define each ELO. Some of these unit standards may indicate as CORE (compulsory), while others may identify as ELECTIVES, with rules of combination provided. Assessment criteria are provided for each ELO where required, mainly to address the need for evidence of integration of competencies. US (C) US (E) US (E) US (C) US (E) US (C) US (C) US (E) US (E) Each unit standard contains details of specific outcomes, range statements, and assessment criteria, thus making it possible for assessors to judge competence in terms of each unit standard, while at the same time providing possible evidence of integration of competencies. For each unit standard: specific outcomes range statements assessment criteria 5.4.1.8 This qualification also has the following internal structure (table 13) further 120 credits (minimum) further 115 credits (minimum) D E G R E E D I P L O M A Higher Certificate 125 credits (minimum) A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 173 5.4.1.9 Exit Level Outcomes (Table 14) Possible credits Exit Level Outcome F* C* E* 1. Serve on UN peacekeeping missions as a field operator in various positions such as military observer, liaison officer etc. 15 100 10 2. Assess peacekeeping operations from an international perspective in order to apply lessons learnt in the African peacekeeping environment. 3 32 15 3. Collect, analyse, organise and critically assess any information relevant to peacekeeping missions in Africa, to make a sound judgement of any given situation. 45 4. Appraise the elements of a geo-political study in order to compile a geo-political profile of given country in Africa for peacekeeping purposes. 29 3 5. Contribute to the Civil-Military Coordination Process by working in close collaboration with local authorities, UN peacekeeping forces, and other agencies in ensuring safe access to vulnerable populations of concern. 2 15 5 TOTALS 20 221 33 Credits required 20 197 23 Note: F = Fundamentals; C = Core; E = Elective 5.4.1.10 Rules of combination: Fundamental - Learners are required to achieve 20 credits for Introduction to, background on, and basic rules of peace support operations, civil-military relations. Core - Learners must achieve all 197 Core credits listed in exit level outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. See table 17 for guidance on how learners may combine credits for various roles. 5.4.1.11 Level, Credits and Learning Components Assigned to the Qualification (Table 15) Each Exit Level Outcome is defined by means of the grouping of unit standards that makes up a coherent and meaningful exit point, such that learners who do not achieve the whole qualification can achieve recognition for a coherent cluster. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 174 Within each grouping, the unit standards that are compulsory are represented in the core category, and where there is choice, these are indicated as electives. Point 5.4.1.10 above indicates the rules of combination. Exit level Outcome 1: Serve on a UN Peacekeeping Mission Possible Credits Sn Unit Standard Title Level F* C* E* An Introduction to the UN System: orientation for serving on a UN field mission 6 5 The History of UN peacekeeping operations during the Cold War: 1945 To 1987. 6 5 The History of UN peacekeeping operations following the Cold War: 1988 To 1997. 6 5 Peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia: from the Dayton accord to Kosovo. 6 5 Global terrorism 6 5 International humanitarian law and the law of armed conflict 6 10 Security for UN Peacekeepers 6 5 Principles for the conduct of PSO. 6 5 Peacekeeping and international conflict resolution 6 10 UN civilian police: restoring civil order following hostilities 6 5 The conduct of humanitarian relief operations: principles of intervention and management. 6 10 Logistical support to UN peacekeeping operations 6 10 Operational logistical support of UN peacekeeping missions: intermediate logistics course 6 10 The provision of troops and contingent-owned equipment and the method for reimbursement 6 5 UN Military Observers: methods and techniques for serving on a UN observer mission 6 10 Mine Action: Humanitarian impact, technical Aspects, and global initiatives 6 5 Commanding UN peacekeeping operations: methods and techniques for peacekeeping on the ground 6 10 Contact session 5 Total 15 100 10 Exit level Outcome 2: Assess Peacekeeping Operations from an International Perspective Possible Credits Sn Unit Standard Title Level F* C* E* Strategic Background to PSO. 6 3 The international environment. 6 2 The changing nature of PSO: A UK perspective. 6 2 Planning for PSO from a UK Perspective. 6 4 A general approach to peace operations (Netherlands). 6 2 A military approach to peace operations from a Netherlands perspective. 6 2 Political decision-making and military command and control from a Netherlands perspective. 6 2 Support in a multinational framework from a Netherlands perspective. 6 3 MOOTW operational tasks from a Netherlands perspective. 6 2 An introduction to MOOTW from a USA Perspective. 6 2 Principles of MOOTW, a USA perspective. 6 2 Types Of MOOTW from a USA perspective. 6 2 Planning for MOOTW, a USA Perspective. 4 3 Hostage survival from a Canadian perspective. 6 2 The operations centre from a Canadian perspective. 6 2 Negotiation and Mediation from a Canadian perspective 6 2 Media awareness from a Canadian perspective 6 2 Peace partners from a Canadian Perspective 6 2 Preventive medicine (Canada) 6 2 Stress management 6 2 Contact session 5 Total 3 32 15 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 175 Exit level Outcome 3: Appraise the elements of a geo-political study Possible Credits Sn Unit Standard Title Level F* C* E* Concepts influencing geo-politics 6 1 Elements of a geo-political study 6 1 International politics 6 1 Africa studies 6 2 Geo-Pol : South Africa and SADC 6 5 Global conflict 6 2 International, regional, and national security 6 2 World health issues 6 1 Security-Sector Reform in developing countries 6 12 Contact session 5 Total 29 3 Exit level Outcome 4: Collect, analyse, organise and critically assess any information relevant to peacekeeping missions in Africa Possible Credits Sn Unit Standard Title Level F* C* E* Assess case studies in the African environment. 6 8 Appraise the context in which PSO takes place. 6 3 Discuss the Strategic context and concepts of PSO in Africa. 6 2 Appraise the fundamentals, principles and campaigning wrt PSO in the African Context 6 3 Explain the tasks and techniques on PSO in the Africa context. 6 2 Discuss the components in PSO. 6 3 Appraise the PSO environment. 6 2 Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration (DDR). 6 8 Conflict Analysis for Project Management. 6 2 Demobilisation and Reintegration of Ex-combatants in Post-war and transition countries. 6 2 Contact session 10 Total 45 Exit level Outcome 5: Contribute to the Civil-Military Coordination Process Possible Credits Sn Unit Standard Title Level F* C* E* CIMIC principles 6 2 CIMIC in context 6 2 CIMIC practices and process 6 3 The military on humanitarian operations 6 1 CIMIC individual skills 6 1 CIMIC exercises 6 2 Options for aid in conflict 6 1 Contact session (include written assignments) 10 Total 2 15 5 A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 176 5.4.1.12 Possible combinations of electives (Table 16) Possible Groupings (indicated by credit values) Exit Level Outcome A B C D E F G H 1 Serve on UN peacekeeping missions 10 10 5 5 10 10 5 2 Assess peacekeeping operations 15 15 5 15 10 15 10 15 4 Compile a geo-political profile 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 Contribute to the Civil-Military Coordination Process 5 5 5 5 Credits from combination 25 23 23 23 23 28 23 25 Additional Elective credits 8 18 10 10 10 5 10 8 Total Electives 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 􀂃 The rules of combination make it possible for candidates to demonstrate. 5.4.1.13 International Comparability This qualification is not comparable to any other equivalent qualification as no similar RSA or other NQF qualification could be found during research on the saqa.co.za network. However, exit outcome one (ELO 1) is the courses that UNITAR POCI has on offer. It is a coherent and cohesive self-paced correspondence training system that covers training at all levels. It is primarily aimed at those who are or would like to become members of UN field missions and who would like to become better familiarised with the UN, its system, working conditions, and requirements in the field. Exit outcome two (ELO 2) is a combination of international perspectives, from Canada, the United Kingdom, the USA, Nordic countries and the Netherlands. This ELO will be used to assess peacekeeping operations from an international perspective in order to apply lessons learnt in the African peacekeeping environment (ELO 3). A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 177 5.4.1.13 Assessment Criteria For award of the whole qualification, learners must achieve the required number of credits as specified in the rules of combination in point 5.4.1.10 above, as well as the criteria specified for integrated assessment in point 5.4.1.14 below. Should learners exit the qualification without completing the whole qualification, recognition may be given for each exit level outcome achieved. For award of a particular exit level outcome, candidates must achieve all the core and elective unit standards associated with the particular exit level outcome as per the specifications contained within each unit standard. 5.4.1.14 Integrated Assessment Assessment will take place according to the detailed specifications indicated in the unit standards associated with each exit level outcome (see point 5.4.1.11). Over and above the achievement of the specified unit standards, evidence of integration will be required as per the following broad criteria, all within the context of an active learning environment. Assessors should note that candidates when assessed against the unit standards could well present the evidence of integration (as below) – thus it is not suggested that there should necessarily be separate assessments for each unit standard and then further assessment for integration. Well-designed assessments should make it possible to gain evidence against each unit standard while at the same time gain evidence of integration. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 178 5.4.1.15 Assessment Principles Assessment should be in accordance with the following general and specific principles: 􀂃 The initial assessment activities should focus on gathering evidence in terms of the main outcomes expressed in the titles of the unit standards to ensure assessment is integrated rather than fragmented. Where assessment at title level is unmanageable, then the assessment can focus on each specific outcome, or groups of specific outcomes. Take special note of the need for integrated assessment. 􀂃 Gather evidence across the entire range specified in each unit standard, as applicable. Assessment activities should be as close to the real performance as possible, and where simulations or role-plays are used, there should be supporting evidence to prove that the candidate is able to perform in the real situation. 􀂃 All assessments should be conducted in accordance with the following universally accepted principles of assessment: 􀂾 use appropriate, fair and manageable methods that are integrated into real work-related or learning situations; 􀂾 judge evidence on the basis of its validity, currency, authenticity and sufficiency; and 􀂾 Ensure assessment processes are systematic, open, and consistent. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 179 5.4.1.16 Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) This qualification can be achieved wholly or in part through recognition of prior learning in terms of the defined exit level outcomes and/or individual unit standards. Evidence can be presented in various ways, including international and/or previous local qualifications, products, reports, testimonials mentioning functions performed, work records, portfolios, videos of practice and performance records. All such evidence will be judged in accordance with the general principles of assessment described above and the requirements for integrated assessment. 5.4.1.17 Moderation 􀂃 The ETDP SETA ETDQA must accredit providers providing learning towards this qualification or the component unit standards. 􀂃 The ETDP SETA ETDQA according to moderation principles and the agreed ETQA procedures will oversee moderation of assessment. 5.4.1.18 Registration of Assessors. Assessors must register in terms of the requirements of SAQA and the ETDP SETA ETDQA. 5.4.1.19 Critical Cross-Field Outcomes. This qualification addresses the following critical cross-field outcomes: 􀂃 Identifying and solving problems in which responses indicate that responsible decisions using critical and creative thinking have been made. 􀂃 Working effectively with others as a member of a team, group, or organisation. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 180 􀂃 Organising and managing oneself and one’s activities responsibly and effectively. 􀂃 Collecting, analysing, organising and critically evaluating information. 􀂃 Communicating effectively using visual, and language skills in the modes of oral/written persuasion. 􀂃 Using science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the environment and health of others. 􀂃 Demonstrating and understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation. Learning programmes directed towards this qualification will also contribute to the personal development of learners and the social and economic development of our society, by making individuals aware of the importance to: 􀂃 Reflect on and explore a variety of strategies to learn more effectively. 􀂃 Participate as responsible citizen in the life of local, national, and global communities. 􀂃 Be culturally and aesthetically sensitive across a range of social contexts. 􀂃 Explore education and career opportunities. 5.4.2 CURRICULUM CONTENT A curriculum has been produced to serve as a proposal to train learners in a Model of Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa. The curriculum is designed to form the basis of a training syllabus. It provides the trainer with the outcomes and sub-outcomes of PSO aspects. The proposed curriculum content is reflected upon below. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 181 LEARNING PROGRAMME 1: UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING (UNITAR POCI) COURSE 1: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE UN SYSTEM: ORIENTATION FOR SERVING ON A UN FIELD MISSION For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess UN system iot effectively apply the appropriate concepts in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Assess the purpose and principles of the United Nations, its system and institutional framework. • Examine the United Nations’ roles in the areas of peace, security, and development. • Judge the applications of international humanitarian law and human rights. • Assess the application of communication, negotiation, and mediation technique. • Analyse the United Nations role in maintaining safety and security. • Assess the general obligations and responsibilities of the Field Operator. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 50 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact1 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 182 COURSE 2: THE HISTORY OF UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS DURING THE COLD WAR: 1945 TO 1987 For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess the history of UN peacekeeping operations during the Cold War 1945 to 1987 iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Overview the history of UN Peacekeeping operations during the Cold War period 1945 to 1987. • Assess the Arab-Israeli Conflict. • Value the first UN Emergency Force (UNEF). • Appraise the UN Operation in the Congo (ONUC)). • Analyse the financial crisis of the early 1960's. • Compare West New Guinea (West Iran), Yemen, and the Dominican Republic. • Compare the UN Observation Group in Lebanon, India and Pakistan. • Value the second UN Emergency Force (UNEF II) and the disengagement UN Observer Force (UNDOF). • Assess the UN Peacekeeping force in CYPRUS (UNFICYP). • Assess the UN interim force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). • Summarise conclusions. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 50 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact2 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 183 COURSE 3: THE HISTORY OF UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS FOLLOWING THE COLD WAR: 1988 TO 1997 For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess the history of UN peacekeeping operations following the Cold War 1988 to 1997 iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Value the end of the Cold War and the Resurgence of UN Peacekeeping Operations. • Assess the United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG). • Assess the Gulf Crisis and the Use Of Force. • Appraise further expansion of UN Peacekeeping Operations in 1991-1994 and New Challenges. • Judge the performance of UN Peacekeeping Operations established in 1991-1994: The successful Operations. • Judge the performance of UN Peacekeeping Operations established in 1991-1994: The unsuccessful Operations. • Assess the second UN Operation in Somalia. • Assess the UN Protection Force in Yugoslavia. • Value the Lessons from the UN Operations in Somalia and Bosnia. • Analyse the Retrenchment of UN Peacekeeping Operations since 1994. • Appraise the situation of Peacekeeping Operations and Future Prospects. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 50 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact3 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 184 COURSE 4: PEACEKEEPING IN THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA: FROM THE DAYTON ACCORD TO KOSOVO For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess the history of peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia: from the Dayton accord to Kosovo iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Analyse the DAYTON ACCORD. • Assess UN/NATO Operations prior to IFOR • Analyse the IFOR (Implementation Force) • Analyse the SFOR (Stabilization Force). • Judge the Role of the Media. • Assess the Kosovo Crisis: The KLA and the JA. • Assess the Kosovo Crisis: NATO’s Role. • Assess the ongoing Missions in the former Yugoslavia in 1999. • Assess the UN Missions completed in the former Yugoslavia between 1995 and 1998. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 50 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact4 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 185 COURSE 5: GLOBAL TERRORISM For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess global terrorism iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Value the phenomenon of Terrorism. • Assess the Definitions, Elements, and Anomalies of Terrorism. • Argue the Justifications proclaimed by Terrorists. • Appraise other Motivations for Terrorism: Catalysts, and Negotiations. • Assess the Profile of Terrorists and their Organisations. • Rate Terrorist Weapons, Resources, and Equipment. • Compare the types of Terrorist acts. • Examine Terrorist Tactics and the Targets of Terrorism. • Categorise the Victims of Terrorism. • Contrast Terrorism and the Cold War and Terrorism and the Media. • Compare Anti-Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism. • Assess Terrorism, The United Nations, and the Future. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 50 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact5 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 186 COURSE 6: INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW AND THE LAW OF ARMED CONFLICT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess International Humanitarian Law and the Law of Conflict iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Appraise the general introduction to International Humanitarian Law (IHL): definitions and fields of application. • Assess the protection of victims of International Armed Conflict. • Argue rules applicable in Non-International Armed Conflicts. • Assess the rules on the Conduct of Hostilities. • Examine the means of Implementing IHL. • Compare human rights law and International Humanitarian Law. • Assess the applicability of International Humanitarian Law to Peacekeeping and Peace-enforcement forces • Appraise the current role of the ICRC in IHL. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 100 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact6 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 187 COURSE 7: SECURITY FOR UN PEACEKEEPERS For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess security for UN peacekeepers iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Assess Security in General. • Appraise Security in UN Peacekeeping Missions. • Assess Security Assets. • Value Military Operational Security. • Assess Off Duty Security. • Assess Security of Urban Buildings. • Examine Threat Recognition and Minimising Risk. • Value Treatment of Victims. • Assess Mission (Field) Service; Preparations & Deployment. • Value Case Studies. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 50 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact7 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 188 COURSE 8: PRINCIPLES FOR THE CONDUCT OF PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS (PSO). For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess the principles for the conduct of peace support operations iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Give an Introduction to United Nations PSOs. • Assess Conceptual Approaches to PSOs. • Judge Operational Tasks. • Appraise the Principles of PSOs. • Evaluate Operational Techniques. • Estimate Planning for PSOs. • Assess the Functions in Combat. • Manage Campaign Planning. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 50 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact8 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 189 COURSE 9: PEACEKEEPING AND INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT RESOLUTION For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess peacekeeping and international conflict resolution iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Give an overview of the Emergence and Development of the Field of Conflict Resolution. • Assess the Nature of Conflict. • Assess the Key Concepts of Conflict Resolution • Assess Contemporary Conflict Dynamics. • Categorise Conflict Mapping. • Assess Early Warning and Conflict Prevention. • Assess Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution in War-Zones. • Value Peace Settlements and Post-Conflict Peace Building. • Compare Culture, Conflict Resolution and Peacekeeping. • Appraise Gender Issues in Peacekeeping. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 100 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact9 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 190 COURSE 10: UNITED NATIONS CIVILIAN POLICE: RESTORING CIVIL ORDER FOLLOWING HOSTILITIES For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess UN Civilian Police restoring civil order following hostilities iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: Assess the history of Civpol operations. • Institutional framework and the universal principles established to restore international peace. • The essential parts of the preparation and conduct of negotiations and mediations. • Staff requirements of a peace-keeping operation. • UN communications systems and its international mandate. • Appraise the specific points regarding the security measures taken. • Assess the administrative and logistic matters related to CIVPOL observers. • Examine first aid principles which a CIVPOL observer should master and the health precautions that he or she should take before and during his service. • Assess specifics of what is required of a UN driver and the special terrain and weather conditions that he/she may meet in unusual climates. • Set up a guideline organization for United Nations Civilian Police. • Judge the UN criminal justice standards for peacekeeping police. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 50 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact10 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 191 COURSE 11: THE CONDUCT OF HUMANITARIAN RELIEF OPERATIONS For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess the Conduct of Humanitarian Relief Operations: Principles of Intervention and Management iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Value the reasons for Humanitarian Intervention. • Categorise the Actors in Humanitarian Relief. • Assess the Principles of Intervention. • Assess the Management of Humanitarian Emergencies. • Judge the Management of Health Questions in Humanitarian Intervention. • Assess Logistics: Convoys, Storage, and Distribution of Aid and the Management of Shelters. • Appraise the Administration of Food Aid. • Appraise Water Management and Sanitation. • Select sustainable solutions to Humanitarian Crisis. • Compare the Principles of the “Sphere” Project and The “Code Of Conduct”. • Summarise Conclusions. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 100 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact11 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 192 COURSE 12: LOGISTICAL SUPPORT TO UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess logistical support to UN peacekeeping operations iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Assess the United Nations Peacekeeping Logistics Concept. • Appraise the organization of the logistics support establishment both in the field and at headquarters. • Value the financial and budgetary aspects of peacekeeping logistics support. • Evaluate the life cycle of a United Nations peace operation. • Compare how peacekeeping field operations work with non-DPKO elements both United Nations and non-United Nations. • Assess the United Nations’ duties and responsibilities toward nations contributing troops and equipment to a peacekeeping mission. • Assess the drawdown/liquidation process in a field mission. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 100 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact12 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 193 COURSE 13: OPERATIONAL LOGISTICAL SUPPORT OF UN PEACEKEEPING MISSIONS: INTERMEDIATE LOGISTICS COURSE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess operational logistical support of UN peacekeeping missions iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Give an overview of UN Operational Logistics. • Assess UN Operational Logistic Planning. • Examine Supply Concepts, Supply Planning and Supply Operations. • Examine Engineering Support. • Assess the UN Transportation System. • Compare Aviation and Air Services. • Assess the UN Maintenance System. • Assess the UN Medical System. • Assess the UN Communications System. • Assess the UN Postal and Courier Services. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 100 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact13 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 194 COURSE 14: THE PROVISION OF TROOPS AND CONTINGENT-OWNED EQUIPMENT (COE) AND THE METHOD FOR REIMBURSEMENT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess the provisioning of troops and contingent- owned equipment and the method of reimbursement iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Value the Evolution of Troop and Contingent-Owned Equipment Reimbursement. • Compare the standard Elements of the COE System and Lease Options. • Examine the Standards, Verification and Control on which the COE system is based. • Assess procedures and regulations governing the preparation and transportation of equipment to and from a mission as a part of a COE agreement. • Assess procedures for negotiating rates for specialized equipment that cannot be categorized into a generic group. • Assess the responsibilities and procedures related to the loss and damage of equipment and supplies provided under the COE Agreement. • Examine the purpose and calculation of Mission Factors as part of the COE reimbursement process. • Assess the actual rates used to calculate reimbursement for major equipment. • Assess personnel-based self-sustainment rates. • Assess how COE Agreements are prepared, approved and managed. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 50 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact14 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 195 COURSE 15: UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS: METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A UN OBSERVER MISSION For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess United Nations Military Observers: Methods and Techniques for serving on a UN Observer Mission iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Provide the general outline of the United Nations system and enumerates specific details regarding some of the main components responsible for peace-keeping. • Compose an in-depth review of the duties of the UN Military Observer. • Plan the essential parts of the preparation and conduct of negotiations and mediations. • Plan the staff requirements of a peacekeeping operation and provide a few guidelines for writing reports. • Assess the UN communications systems and its international mandate. • Assess some specific points regarding the security measures. • Assess the administrative and logistic matters related to military observers. • Examine the first aid principles which a military observer should master. • Judge specifics of what is required of a UN driver. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 100 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact15 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 196 COURSE 16: MINE ACTION: HUMANITARIAN IMPACT, TECHNICAL ASPECTS, AND GLOBAL INITIATIVES For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess Mine Action: Humanitarian Impact, Technical Aspects, and Global Initiatives iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Appraise the global landmine problem and United Nations response. • Value the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Treaty. • Assess Landmine and UXO Safety Training. • Judge International Mine Action Standards (IMAS). • Assess Victim Assistance. • Assess Mine Risk Education. • Arrange Mine Information. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 50 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact16 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 197 COURSE 17: COMMANDING UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS: METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR PEACEKEEPING ON THE GROUND For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment. End-of-course exam (must obtain 75% as prescribed by UNITAR POCI) The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Overall Outcome: Assess Commanding United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Methods and Techniques for Peacekeeping on the Ground iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Specific Outcomes: • Value the institutional framework of peacekeeping operations. • Assess the legal framework for peacekeeping operations. • Design the organisation and command for peacekeeping operations. • Design the organisation of force support within a peacekeeping operation. • Appraise the background of a peacekeeping operation. • Assess the principles of action within a peacekeeping operation. • Compare domains and modes of action of the force. • Assess mission and operational techniques in peacekeeping operations • Analyse specific techniques in peacekeeping operations • Assess the rules of engagement in a peacekeeping operation. • Assess recommendations related to safety and security. • Assess rules of behaviour. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 100 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact17 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 198 UN PEACEKEEPING (UNITAR POCI): CONTACT SESSION For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific Outcome To finalise UN Peacekeeping Objectives • To revise all learning outcomes bmo central lectures highlighting the main points. • To carry out group work in the form of syndicate room discussions (SRD), role-plays, and computer presentations. • To finalise and hand in Portfolios of Evidence. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Study groups. • Face-to-face contact. • Central Lecture room to house approx 100 learners. • 10 syndicate rooms. • Computer and video-data projector in central lecture hall and per syndicate room. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Because the programme is presented bmo distance education it is necessary to finalise bmo of a contact session iot achieve practical and critical outcomes. Hints Keep the lectures and central discussions short and informative as possible. Concentrate on group work to achieve outcomes. RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: 50 hours Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact18 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 199 LEARNING PROGRAMME 2: INTERNATIONAL PEACEKEEPING STUDY UNIT 1: STRATEGIC BACKGROUND TO PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS (UK) For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess the strategic background to PSO iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Range of PSO as defined by NATO • Operational Response Elements • The United Nations Org and Roles • UN Crisis Management • UN Planning Process • Government Donors (Channels and Nature of Donor Operations) • Non-Government Organisations (NGO) Missions and Values • NGO Coordination and Liaison • NGO Relationships with the Military • International and Intergovernmental Organisations • The Corporate and Civil Sector • Regional Organisations and Alliances The UK Crisis Management Sequence Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 30 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact19 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 200 STUDY UNIT2: THE INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess the international environment iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Introduction • A changing world • Intrastate conflict • International Organisations • The United Nations • Regional Organisations • The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) • The European Union • Other Actors • Governmental organisations • Non-governmental organisations • International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) • The civil sector The media Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact20 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 201 STUDY UNIT 3: THE CHANGING NATURE OF PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS: A UNITED KINGDOM PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess the changing natures of PSO from a UK perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Peace Support Operations During the Cold • Post Cold War Complex Emergencies • A Composite Response • Military Options Operational Practices Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact21 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 202 STUDY UNIT 4: PLANNING FOR PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS FROM A UK PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Estimate planning for PSO from a UK perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • The Mission Plan • Mission Analysis • The Estimate • The Plan • The conduct of Operations • Joint Peace Support Operations Considerations • Maritime Considerations • Land Considerations • Air Considerations • Helicopter Considerations • Combat Service Support • Financial Matters • Directives and Orders Training Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 40 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact22 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 203 STUDY UNIT 5: A GENERAL APPROACH TO PEACE OPERATIONS (NETHERLANDS) For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Value the general approach to peace operations from a Netherlands perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Overview of the general approach to Peace operations • The success of peace operations • Peace support operations • Other Peace operations Consent in Peace operations Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact23 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 204 STUDY UNIT 6: A MILITARY APPROACH TO PEACE OPERATIONS FROM A NETHERLANDS PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Compare the military approach to PSO from a Netherlands perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Overview of a military approach to Peace Operations from a Netherlands perspective • The basic principles of military operations • The rules of engagement and the use of force • The functions in military operations The operational framework Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact24 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 205 STUDY UNIT 7: POLITICAL DECISION-MAKING AND MILITARY COMMAND AND CONTROL FROM A NETHERLANDS PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Judge political-decision-making and military command and control from a Netherlands perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Introduction • Strategic decision-making at international level • Strategic decision-making at national level Operational command and control in the area of operations Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact25 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 206 STUDY UNIT 8: SUPPORT IN A MULTINATIONAL FRAMEWORK FROM A NETHERLANDS PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Appraise support in a multinational framework from a Netherlands perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Introduction • Support options • Sources of support • Support during the peace operation • Command and control and coordination The logistic planning process Support in a UN framework Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 30 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact26 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 207 STUDY UNIT 9: MOOTW OPERATIONAL TASKS FROM A NETHERLANDS PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Value MOOTW operational tasks from a Netherlands perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Observation, monitoring and supervision • Preventive deployment • The enforcement of sanctions • The establishing and maintaining of protected areas • Inter-positioning • Forcible separation of parties • Discuss the guaranteeing or denying of the freedom of movement • Demobilisation operations • Military aid/support to civil authorities • Non-combatant evacuation operations • Humanitarian operations Operating in transitional situations Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact27 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 208 STUDY UNIT 10: AN INTRODUCTION TO MILITARY OPERATIONS OTHER THAN WAR (MOOTW) FROM A USA PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess military operations other than war from a USA perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • The Purpose of Military Operations other than War • Military Operations Other Than War • The primacy of Political Objectives • Strategic Aspects such as Deterrence, Forward Presence and Crisis Response • The range of Military Operations Other Than War such as MOOTW Involving the Use or Threat of Force, MOOTW Not Involving the Use or Threat of Force and Simultaneous Operations • The Duration of Operations Conclusion Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact28 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 209 STUDY UNIT 11: PRINCIPLES OF MILITARY OPERATIONS OTHER THAN WAR, A USA PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Value the principles of military operations other than war (MOOTW) from a USA perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives The principles of Military Operations Other Than War (MOOTW) with regard to: • Objective • Unity of Effort • Security • Restraint • Perseverance • Legitimacy The Principles in Action of MOOTW from a USA perspective: • Objective • Unity of Effort • Security • Restraint • Perseverance Legitimacy Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact29 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 210 STUDY UNIT 12: TYPES OF MILITARY OPERATIONS OTHER THAN WAR FROM A USA PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Compare the types of military operations other than from a USA perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Arms Control • Combating Terrorism • DOD Support to Counter-drug Operations • Enforcement of Sanctions/Maritime Intercept Operations • Enforcing Exclusion Zones • Ensuring Freedom of Navigation and Over flight • Humanitarian Assistance (HA) • Military Support to Civil Authorities (MSCA) • Nation Assistance/Support to Counterinsurgency • Non-combatant Evacuation Operations (NEO) • Peace Operations (PO) • Protection of Shipping • Recovery Operations • Show of Force Operations • Strikes and Raids Support to Insurgency Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact30 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 211 STUDY UNIT 13: PLANNING FOR MILITARY OPERATIONS OTHER THAN WAR, A USA PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Estimate planning for MOOTW from a USA perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Unit Integrity • Intelligence and Information Gathering • Multinational Operations • Command and Control (C2 • Public Affairs • Civil Affairs (CA) • Psychological Operations • Coordination with NGOs and PVOs • Interagency Operations • Legal Requirements • Logistics • Medical Operations • Active/Reserve Mix • Transition from Wartime Operations to MOOTW • Termination of Operations Education and Training for MOOTW from a USA perspective Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 30 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact31 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 212 STUDY UNIT 14: HOSTAGE SURVIVAL FROM A CANADIAN PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Judge hostage survivals from a Canadian perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Overview of hostage survival • Types of hostage takers • Types of hostage situations • Captor’s behaviour toward their hostages • The stages of adaptation to captivity • Stress reactions in captivity • The “Stockholm Syndrome” • Surviving a hostage situation • Actions during a rescue or release Release Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact32 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 213 STUDY UNIT 15: THE OPERATIONS CENTRE FROM A CANADIAN PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Appraise the operations centre from a Canadian perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Define the Operations Centre • The functions of the Operations Centre • The sitting of an Operations Centre • The Operations Centre Layout • The resources required • Communications • Utilities • References • Operational control Information • Maps and photographs • The UN reporting system • The importance of reports • The importance of detail in reporting • Routine reports Operational reports Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact33 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 214 STUDY UNIT 16: NEGOTIATION AND MEDIATION FROM A CANADIAN PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess negotiation and mediation from a Canadian perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Aim of Negotiation and Mediation • The scope of Negotiation and Mediation • Definitions of Negotiation and Mediation • The contribution to PSO. • Negotiation and Mediation techniques • Negotiation in PSO. • Approaching Negotiations positionally The phases of Negotiation and Mediation Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact34 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 215 STUDY UNIT 17: MEDIA AWARENESS FROM A CANADIAN PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Value media awareness from a Canadian perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • The aim of media awareness • The scope of media awareness • Glossary of public affairs terms • Working with the media • Anticipating the media’s story requirements • The media interview • Telling the media story • Media awareness operational guidelines Individual guidelines Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact35 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 216 STUDY UNIT 18: PEACE PARTNERS FROM A CANADIAN PERSPECTIVE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Value peace partners from a Canadian perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • An overview of peace partners • The functional components of a PSO • The composition of a PSO • The principles for success • Working with government and police Do’s and Dont’s Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact36 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 217 STUDY UNIT 19: PREVENTIVE MEDICINE (CANADA) For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess the uses of preventive medicine from a Canadian perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Define stress • Facts about stress • Emotional cycle of stress • Stress reactions and effects • General strategies for dealing with stress • How to manage basic stress • Critical incident stress • How to manage critical incident stress • Cumulative stress • Assess Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) • Post-Mission Stress Management • Recovery and Stabilisation • Post-PSO Deflation and Re-integration Command Responsibilities Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact37 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 218 STUDY UNIT 20: STRESS MANAGEMENT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination after each study unit bmo of the Internet. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess stress management from a Canadian perspective iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • The environment of the PSO region • The most prevalent threats to PSO members • Key preventive medicine measures • Mission area acclimatisation • High altitude acclimatisation • Cold acclimatisation • Nutrition • Food and water discipline • The prevention of Diarrhoea • The care and first aid for Diarrhoea disease • Diseases from people • Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) • The causes of accidents • Diseases, poisons, and illnesses from plants • Diseases from animals • Diseases from insects • Snakes • Signs and symptoms of heat stress • Countermeasures to cold environments • Personal preventive medicine kit Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact38 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 219 INTERNATIONAL PEACEKEEPING: CONTACT SESSION For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific Outcome To finalise International Peacekeeping. Objectives • To revise all learning outcomes bmo central lectures highlighting the main points. • To carry out group work in the form of syndicate room discussions (SRD), role-plays, and computer presentations. • To finalise and hand in Portfolios of Evidence. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Study groups. • Face-to-face contact. • Central Lecture room to house approx 100 learners. • 10 syndicate rooms. • Computer and video-data projector in central lecture hall and per syndicate room. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Because the programme is presented bmo distance education it is necessary to finalise bmo of a contact session iot achieve practical and critical outcomes. Hints Keep the lectures and central discussions short and informative as possible. Concentrate on group work to achieve outcomes. RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: 50 hours Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact39 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 220 LEARNING PROGRAMME 3: GEO-POLITICS AND SECURITY STUDIES STUDY UNIT 1: CONCEPTS INFLUENCING GEO-POLITICS For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Appraise the concepts influencing geo-politics and effectively apply the appropriate concepts in the assessment of a geo-political study. Objectives • The concept of a State. • The concept of a Nation. • The concept of the Nation-state. • The cohesion of a Nation. • The concept of National Interests. Note: List the outcomes as well as all the objectives that form one learning event here. Keep in mind that time is relative. (See the note on time.) One learning event can be an assignment that takes one week to complete, or it can be a day long lecture. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 10 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact40 terms. 40“The assumption that time is a determining factor in the acquisition of knowledge and mastery of skills needs to be confronted” (p 25) and “learning programme developers would be wise to take cognisance of the reality that learners learn differently and come to a learning experience with different levels of understanding and build in appropriate assessment processes to assess what students know rather than what they do not know, and avoid making assumptions about their knowledge base. Teaching strategies naturally should also take this into account. In fact, it could be argued that the successful implementation of the NQF requires that these assumptions are made explicit, so that learners and teachers can work together to ensure that the achievement of all learning outcomes deemed necessary.” p 26. Spady as referred to in SAQA: The National Qualifications Framework and Curriculum Development. May 2000. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 221 STUDY UNIT 2: THE ELEMENTS OF A GEO-POLITICAL STUDY For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess the elements of a geo-politics study and effectively apply the appropriate elements in the assessment of a geo-political study. Objectives • Physical elements. • Population elements. • Economic elements. • Military elements. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 10 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact41 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 222 STUDY UNIT 3: INTERNATIONAL POLITICS For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Argue international politics and effectively apply the appropriate concepts in the assessment of a geo-political study. Objectives • The effect of globalisation on international and regional security. • The influences of the trends towards regionalisation and bloc-formation in the present world order on international and regional security. • The international balance of power. • The decline of the nation-state and how it influences regional and international security. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact42 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 223 STUDY UNIT 4: AFRICA STUDIES For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess Africa studies in the international context and effectively apply the information to compare Africa with the rest of the world in the assessment of a geo-political study. Objectives • The impact of ideological, diplomatic, informational, military, and economic trends and dynamics in Africa on regional security and stability. • NEPAD. • The relationship between Africa and the rest of the world • Africa’s image in the world. • Africa’s economic impact on the world. • Africa’s impact with regard to strategic resources. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact43 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 224 STUDY UNIT 5: GEO-POL: SOUTH AFRICA AND SADC For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. • Position Paper reflecting the learner’s position on a specific topic using at least 5 references. Length of paper approx 1000 words. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific Outcome Compare South Africa with the SADC countries and relate to the international world, and effectively apply the information to assess a geo-political study. Objectives • The South African political system. • South Africa’s foreign policy. • How international and regional politics influences South Africa’s economy. • South Africa’s role in Africa and the world. • The geo-political strengths and weaknesses of South Africa from a military point of view. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 50 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact44 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 225 STUDY UNIT 6: GLOBAL CONFLICT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific Outcome Assess Global Conflict with specific reference to the African battle space and effectively apply the information to assess a geo-political study. Objectives • The African Battle space. • The global balance of power. • Conflict and competition. • Contemporary global conflict. • The international terrorism threat. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact45 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 226 STUDY UNIT 7: INTERNATIONAL, REGIONAL, AND NATIONAL SECURITY For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific Outcome Assess International, Regional, and National Security issues and effectively apply the information to assess a geo-political study. Objectives • International security issues. • The role of international organisations in security. • The threats to regional security. • The mechanism to maintain regional security. • The role of South Africa in the region concerning security issues. • National strategic guidance. • Security as pre-condition for stability. • National power. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact46 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 227 STUDY UNIT 8: WORLD HEALTH ISSUES For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific Outcome Assess World Health issues to support and effectively apply the information to assess a geo-political study. Objectives • Overview of global health issues • The role of the ICRC in promoting health in situations of war and conflict • The responsibilities of the role players within the United Nations system • The global health issue of infectious diseases The HIV/AIDS epidemic and the threat to South Africa Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 10 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact47 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 228 STUDY UNIT 9: SECURITY-SECTOR REFORM IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. • Staff paper (summative). Written assignment of approx 10,000 words and not less than 10 references. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific Outcome value security-sector reform in developing countries by comparing conflict zones in Africa and effectively apply the information to assess a geo-political study. Objectives • Introduction to security-sector reform in developing countries • Define “security-sector reform” • The Dimensions, Goals and Priorities of Security-Sector Reform • The Problems and Dilemmas of Security-Sector Reform Recommendations for Development Cooperation Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints Learner should receive the topic of staff paper at the start of the programme and hand in during the contact session at the end of the programme. RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 120 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact48 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 229 GEOPOL AND SECURITY: CONTACT SESSION For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific Outcome To finalise Geo-politics and Security studies Objectives • To revise all learning outcomes bmo central lectures highlighting the main points. • To carry out group work in the form of syndicate room discussions (SRD), role-plays, and computer presentations. • To finalise and hand in Portfolios of Evidence. • To finalise and hand in written assignments. • To conduct the final summative written examinations. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Study groups. • Face-to-face contact. • Central Lecture room to house approx 100 learners. • 10 syndicate rooms. • Computer and video-data projector in central lecture hall and per syndicate room. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Because the programme is presented bmo distance education it is necessary to finalise bmo of a contact session iot achieve practical and critical outcomes. Hints Keep the lectures and central discussions short and informative as possible. Concentrate on group work to achieve outcomes. RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: 50 hours Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): - Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact49 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 230 LEARNING PROGRAMME 4: PEACEKEEPING IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT STUDY UNIT 1: CASE STUDIES IN THE AFRICAN ENVIRONMENT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess various case studies in the African environment iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Rwanda • Somalia • Eritrea • Ethiopia • Sierra Leone • Liberia • Angola • Sudan • DRC • Burundi Cote de Voire Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 80 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact50 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 231 STUDY UNIT 2: THE CONTEXT IN WHICH PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS (PSO) TAKES PLACE For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess the context in which PSO’s take place iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Terms and Definitions • The changing security environment • The military as an instrument of national policy • The need for common understanding The way forward Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 30 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact51 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 232 STUDY UNIT 3: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT AND CONCEPTS OF PSO IN AFRICA For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess strategic context and concepts of PSO in Africa iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Overview of the strategic environment • The changing security environment • Legal aspects • The United Nations • The African Union • ECOWAS • The Southern African Development Community (SADC) • International and government donors • Non-governmental organisations • International and intergovernmental organisations • The corporate and civil sector The role of regional organisations Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact52 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 233 STUDY UNIT 4: THE FUNDAMENTALS, PRINCIPLES AND CAMPAIGNING WRT PSO IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess the fundamentals; principles and campaigning wrt PSO in the African context iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Introduction • Fundamental 1 - Creating, Sustaining and Enhancing campaign authority • Fundamental 2 – Credible & reasonable force • Fundamental 3 – Perseverance • Guiding Principles Campaigning Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 30 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact53 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 234 STUDY UNIT 5: THE TASKS AND TECHNIQUES ON PSO IN THE AFRICA CONTEXT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess the tasks and techniques on PSO in the Africa context iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Introduction. • Negotiation and mediation • Civil-Military Coordination • Confidence building measures • Control measures • Early Warning • Explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) & mine clearance • Intelligence Operations • Interposition • Observation and Monitoring • Protected or Safe areas • Interim management tasks and techniques • Common tasks and techniques • Information operations • Liaison • Mediation and Negotiation • Sequence for DDR Information and Communications operations Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact54 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 235 STUDY UNIT 6: COMPONENTS IN PSO For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Compare the various components in PSO from an RSA viewpoint iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Introduction • Peace Support Force • Command and Control • The Land component • The Maritime component • The Air component • The SA Medical Health Services (SAHMS) • Special Forces component • Logistics component • Command and Control considerations Logistics on Peace Missions Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 30 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact55 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 236 STUDY UNIT 7: THE PSO ENVIRONMENT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Appraise the PSO environment iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Introduction • The evolution of international collective security organisations • The evolution of peace missions • Reforming the United Nations • Regional organisations and PSO • Peace mission actors • International Organisations • Non-Governmental Organisations • Supporting National Institutions • Peace mission early warning • The United Nations • The African Union Peace mission stakeholders Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact56 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 237 STUDY UNIT 8: DISARMAMENT, DEMOBILISATION, AND REINTEGRATION (DDR) For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. • Position paper. Handed in at end of programme during contact session. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Estimate Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) in the African environment iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Introduction to DDR • Disarmament during DDR • Demobilisation during DDR • Reintegration during DDR • Humanitarian Standards for Encampment Site Selection and Operation • Checklist for DDR Planning • The Components of Demobilisation/Reintegration by Phase • Recommended HIV/AIDS Interventions during Demobilisation Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 80 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact57 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 238 STUDY UNIT 9: CONFLICT ANALYSIS FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess conflict analysis for project management in the African environment iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • The Purpose of Conflict Analysis • The Basic Elements of Conflict Analysis • The Basic Elements of Planning In Conflict Situations • How Conflict Analysis can be integrated into Project Cycle Management (PCM) • Guiding questions for the Selecting, Preparing and Development of Projects in Conflict situations • Practical suggestions for a Conflict Analysis Workshop • The Toolbox for Conflict Analysis • The terms of reference for the Guidelines on Conflict The Planning and Management of Development Projects Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact58 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 239 STUDY UNIT 10: DEMOBILISATION AND REINTEGRATION OF EX-COMBATANTS IN POST-WAR AND TRANSITION COUNTRIES For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Estimate demobilization and reintegration of ex-combatants on post-war and transition countries iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • The concept of demobilisation and reintegration • Force downsizing in the 1990’s • Recent demobilisations • The supporting of demobilisation and reintegration of ex-combatants in post-war societies • External support for demobilisation and reintegration • Anticipating demobilisation and reintegration support Analysis and prospects Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact59 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 240 PEACEKEEPING IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT: CONTACT SESSION For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific Outcome To finalise studies on Peacekeeping in the African context. Objectives • To revise all learning outcomes bmo central lectures highlighting the main points. • To carry out group work in the form of syndicate room discussions (SRD), role-plays, and computer presentations. • To finalise and hand in Portfolios of Evidence. • To finalise and hand in written assignments. • To conduct the final summative written examinations. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Study groups. • Face-to-face contact. • Central Lecture room to house approx 100 learners. • 10 syndicate rooms. • Computer and video-data projector in central lecture hall and per syndicate room. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Because the programme is presented bmo distance education it is necessary to finalise bmo of a contact session iot achieve practical and critical outcomes. Hints Keep the lectures and central discussions short and informative as possible. Concentrate on group work to achieve outcomes. RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: 50 hours Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): - Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact60 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 241 LEARNING PROGRAMME 5: CIVIL-MILITARY COORDINATION (CIMIC) STUDY UNIT 1: CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS (CIMIC) PRINCIPLES For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Judge CIMIC principles iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Concepts of civil-military relationships. • Principles of civil-military relationships from a military perspective. • The guideline of civil-military relationships from a military perspective. • The principles of civil-military relationships from a humanitarian perspective. The guideline of civil-military relationships from a humanitarian perspective. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact61 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 242 STUDY UNIT 2: CIMIC IN CONTEXT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Appraise CIMIC in context iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • The CIMIC structure and organisation • The nature of conflict • The UN System and Structures • UN Complex Peace Operations • African Peace Operations • Peace building • Humanitarian Assistance Unintended consequences (HIV/AIDS, Women, and Children) Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact62 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 243 STUDY UNIT 3: CIMIC PRACTICES AND PROCESS For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Assess CIMIC practices and processes iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • CIMIC Operations • Liaison and Information Management • Joint Operations and Mission Support • Civic Action • Quick Impact Projects • CIMIC Planning • CIMIC best practices Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 30 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact63 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 244 STUDY UNIT 4: THE MILITARY ON HUMANITARIAN OPERATIONS For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Value the military on humanitarian operations iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • The basis for military participation in United Nations humanitarian operations • The work and responsibilities UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations • The guiding principles and legal frameworks for humanitarian action • Cooperation and Coordination in Emergency Operations • The Humanitarian Implications of Peace Support Activities in Emergency Operations • Military Tasks in Support of UNHCR in Emergency Operations • The Organizational Culture of UNHCR • The History of UNHCR Cooperation with the Military • The United Nations Humanitarian Organizations (UNICEF, WFP, and WHO) Some of UNHCR's major NGO partners and a key word description of their areas of specialisation Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. Bibliography: See list of references. Background • Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 30 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact64 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 245 STUDY UNIT 5: CIMIC INDIVIDUAL SKILLS For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. Specific outcome Judge CIMIC individual skills iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Negotiation Skills • Facilitate Meetings • Working with Interpreters • Cultural Awareness • Project Management • Media Relations Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. • Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 10 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact65 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 246 STUDY UNIT 6: CIMIC EXERCISES For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. • Specific outcome Set up CIMIC exercises iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • Define CIMIC • The scope of CIMIC • Map the Actors • Joint assessment • CIMIC operations • World Food Programme Convoy • Quick Impact projects • Report on Village assessment • Role-play DDR Malimo • Campaign planning Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 20 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact66 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 247 STUDY UNIT 7: OPTIONS FOR AID IN CONFLICT For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. • Specific outcome Select options for aid in conflict iot effectively apply the appropriate lessons learnt in the assessment of peace support operations in Africa. Objectives • The framework for understanding how Aid and Conflict interact • Decisions about who should receive aid • Decisions about staffing and field programmes • Decisions about local partners • Decisions about what to provide • Decisions about how to provide Aid • Decisions about how to work with local authorities Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Internet. • Telephone. • Study groups. • Distance Training Environment. Bibliography: See list of references. Background Hints RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): 10 hours Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact67 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 248 CIVIL-MILITARY COORDINATION: CONTACT SESSION For Facilitators and Learners For Facilitators Assessment • Formative assessment: End-of-lesson questions in the workbook (self-assessment). • Summative assessment: Theory examination during the contact session at the end of the programme. Update Portfolio of Learning. The criteria and performance indicators are attached as the integrated filed assessment document. Methodology Distance Education. • Specific Outcome To finalise studies on Civil-Military Coordination. Objectives • To revise all learning outcomes bmo central lectures highlighting the main points. • To carry out group work in the form of syndicate room discussions (SRD), role-plays, and computer presentations. • To finalise and hand in Portfolios of Evidence. • To finalise and hand in written assignments. • To conduct the final summative written examinations. Learner Support • Study guide. • Handout: Printed material / CD. • Study groups. • Face-to-face contact. • Central Lecture room to house approx 100 learners. • 10 syndicate rooms. • Computer and video-data projector in central lecture hall and per syndicate room. Bibliography: See list of references. Background Because the programme is presented bmo distance education it is necessary to finalise bmo of a contact session iot achieve practical and critical outcomes. Hints Keep the lectures and central discussions short and informative as possible. Concentrate on group work to achieve outcomes. RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION Formal (class/group/instructional) time: 50 hours Individual time: (preparation, learning, practice): - Note: This is an issue that differs from the traditional approach. Time refers to notional hours of learning and credits in a unit standard and incorporates the two concepts real or contact time or teaching time and learning time. In combination, the two aspects will reflect the time it would take an average learner to master the outcome stated. Individual time is the time spent to prepare for presentations, practice, research, and learn. The facilitator plans formal time. This is therefore not in comparison to a training schedule or block programme, which works in very exact68 terms. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 249 5.5 FURTHER RESEARCH Further research must explore the full development of the proposed Model of Cooperative Education on PSO in Africa. It must also investigate the possibility of applying the model to the rest of Africa. Ideally, such a study would involve larger samples and include all the Services of a defence force. It is with such effort that higher education can develop into a major role player in the continued search for peace on the African continent. 5.6 LARGER RELEVANCE AND VALUE OF THE STUDY There are various international programmes on peacekeeping operations. At present there is, however, no higher learning programme on generic PSO presented by any of the major universities in South Africa. Our principal product will consist of a Co-operative Education programme on PSO in Africa presented by means of correspondence instruction (distance education) and e-learning. Product technology will consist of scientific instructional design and development. In response to demonstrated needs in the market, a new learning programme will be developed that includes a feasibility study, a comprehensive instructional design report, the development of quality learning material and the evaluation of the entire programme on PSO in Africa. This new programme is especially useful to military practitioners, diplomats, civilian employees of ministries of defence, foreign affairs, employees of NGOs, scholars and serious citizens who can now easily benefit from tertiary education. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 250 The key factors in production of the learning programme include scientific instructional design, collaboration and the forming of partnerships with institutions such as the SANDF, the UN Institute for Training and Research Programme on Peacekeeping Operations Correspondence Instruction (UNITAR POCI), UNISA (University of South Africa), the Institute for Security Studies (ISS), SA National War College (SANWC) and the SANDF College of Educational Technology (SANDF COLET). Delivery includes a comprehensive design report and a curriculum. A complete set of learning material on PSO ready for correspondence instruction will be developed, should the proposed programme be selected for implementation. As stated, the market for ETD in the field of PSO is growing rapidly, as South Africa is becoming increasingly involved in peacekeeping missions on the African continent. The target market of potential learners includes military practitioners from the SANDF and SADC countries, diplomats, civilian employees of ministries of defence, foreign affairs, employees of NGOs, scholars and serious citizens who could benefit from a learning programme in PSO. The typical customer of this product is someone who is working in the PSO and humanitarian relief related fields and currently deployed or envisaged to be deployed on peacekeeping missions in Africa. Organisations that could compete in this market are all institutions of higher learning within South Africa. As stated, currently there is no institution of higher learning in the RSA that presents a programme on PSO. UNISA has indicated that it has an interest in presenting courses from UNITAR POCI, but to date nothing has materialised. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 251 Key factors that have resulted in the present competitive position include the nonavailability of a higher learning programme on PSO within Institutions of Higher Learning, the willingness of Prof H. Langholtz, the director of the UNITAR POCI in New York to play an active role in the project as part of the study leadership team, the possibility of a partnership agreement with UNITAR POCI and the fact that the current Minister of Defence, Mr M. Lekota, is the chancellor of the CUT. This could result in an early partnership agreement with the SANDF, i.e. before the project is completed. Current training programmes of the SANDF or other defence forces are not regarded as competition, as these courses are mostly on the tactical level and not diploma/degree accredited. The ability to present a locally designed PSO higher learning programme will be a capability unique to the Higher Learning Institute that decides to present the programme. To manoeuvre into the most advantageous position prior to taking action, follow the science of planning and directing a project. Responses and inquiries from prospective customers will indicate whether there is a wider demand for a tertiary programme on PSO besides the SANDF. The forging of cooperation relationships with relevant stakeholders will substantiate the fitness for considerable growth and accomplishment in the area of PSO. The marketing strategy should be to aggressively enhance, promote and support the fact that the envisaged product will be unique, due to the fact that no Institution of Higher Learning has a similar programme. A close and personal A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 252 relationship along with training, referrals and regular communication is the choice method of distribution. The promotion strategy is to position the Institute of Higher Learning that implements the product as the leading service provider in the market. Utilise the media of promotion, advertising and personal selling to drive the message home to prospective customers. The value for possible beneficiaries embrace that Institutions of Higher Learning could receive additional revenue with the successful implementation of the programme at the Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT) and its distance campus Sol Plaaitjie in collaboration with the National Institute for Higher Education: Northern Cape (NIHE), which is geographically near the SANDF combat training centre at Lohatla. Academic development, design and curriculating an accredited UN PSO Higher Learning Programme will assist Institutions of Higher Learning to make a positive contribution towards establishing peace in Africa. Collaborating and a possible franchise to customise (Africanise) the UNITAR courses for the SANDF is a reality. Partnerships with other stakeholders such as the UN, SANDF, ISS, SANDF COLET could enhance capacity building in the sphere of peace. Offering the programme to other African countries in line with NEPAD initiatives, institutes of higher learning could make a significant contribution to research and development in the field of generic PSO in Africa. Accepting the programme the SANDF gets the opportunity to enhance the knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSAs) of it officers to meet the challenges faced in the Africa PSO theatre. A Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations in Africa 253 Officers at all levels in the chain of command would receive sufficient and appropriate training concerning non-combat skills essential for PSO. Officers at all levels of the chain of command will be able to provide adequate supervision of the training preparations undertaken for PSO. SANDF COLET gets an opportunity to increase experience in the field of instructional design on a higher level of ETD. NGOs will receive appropriate training on the subject of non-combat skills that are essential for peacekeeping, including the nature of UN peacekeeping and the role of the peacekeeper. The ISS could form a partnership with CUT and the SANDF to further and enhance a culture of peace in the South African community. 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